🌍 Broader Historical & Intellectual Climate

  • Norway under Swedish rule until 1905.

  • 1848 revolutions across Europe β€” push for civil rights.

  • Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.

  • Scientific revolution: Darwin (1859), electricity (1879), telephone (1876).

  • Social Darwinism became an excuse for female inferiority

  • Rise of secular thought and decline of religious authority.

  • Hegelian dialectics β€” exposing contradictions in society.

  • Marxism β€” awareness of economic structures.

  • Psychology emerging as intellectual force.