Henry VII, 1485-1509
The Consolidation of Power
Henry VII’s Character and Aims
had not been brought up to rule
had a weak claim: descended through the female Beaufort line (illegitimate, and female, thus weak)
had lived in exile in Brittany since he was 14 after the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Tewkesbury
PERSONALITY TRAITS → probably shaped by his time in exile
shrewd, calculating, self-restrained
MAIN AIM → to consolidate his power in order to keep his throne
needed to reduce the powers of the nobility
needed to improve the Crown’s financial position
had to secure foreign recognition
TIMELINE
August, 1485
predated his reign to 21st August → day before the Battle of Bosworth; meant that anyone who had fought for the Yorkists could be called a traitor
publicly rewarded many key supporters → conferred 11 knighthoods
detained the Earl of Warwick and Elizabeth of York as their claims to the throne were greater than Henry’s
October, 1485
arranged coronation for a week before the meeting of parliament → wanted to show that his right to the throne was hereditary and did not require a parliamentary sanction
made key appointments to council and household → Reginald Bray (Chancellor of the Ducky of Lancaster) and William Stanley (Chamberlain of the Household)
issued parliamentary Acts of Attainder against Yorkists who had fought at Bosworth → their property became forfeit to the Crown
increased his income by demanding the customs revenues of tonnage and poundage → given to him for life, by parliament
January, 1486
Henry married Elizabeth of York → enabled Royal propaganda to exploit the union of the houses, and boosted Henry’s own legitimacy
September, 1486
Prince Arthur was born → the start of a dynasty
Establishing the Tudor Dynasty
THREATS
Yorkist claimants
John de la Pole → nephew of Edward and Richard; had been designated the successor of Richard III. Yorkists regarded him as the leader after Bosworth
Edward, Earl of Warwick → nephew of Edward and Richard; imprisoned in the Tower in 1485 but then beheaded, alleged conspiracy with Warbeck in 1499
Pretenders
Lambert Simnel
Perkin Warbeck
Other:
Yorkist supporters e.g. Lovell and the Staffords
Margaret of Burgundy → sister of Edward and Richard; had the power/ability as well as the want to fund Yorkist ambitions
Timeline of Rebellions
Viscount Lovell and the Staffords → 1486
minor rising, focused on Yorkshire and the Midlands (traditional Yorkist heartlands)
being simultaneously planned, with the intention to overthrow Henry and replace him with a Yorkist claimant
Yorkshire was Lovell, Midlands were the Staffords
Henry captured the Staffords before the rebellion even began
Lovell escaped to the court of Burgundy
Humphrey Stafford was executed
Thomas Stafford was pardoned
Significance
showed there was little support for a Yorkist uprising at this point
example of Henry’s proactivity and good leadership that he was able to quash this rebellion before it began
Yorkshire → 1489
Parliament voted to raise £100,000 for the war in Brittany, to be achieved by taxing Yorkshire and Northumberland
angered the people who had already paid via local taxes
April, 1489 → rebellion broke out; Henry Percy (Earl of Northumberland) sent to meet the rebel leaders but was killed
he had represented the King, so Henry sent a large army to quash the rebellion
several leaders, including John à Chambre, were hanged for treason
underground Yorkists e.g. John Egremont defected to the court of Margaret of Burgundy
Henry did not try to raise tax from these regions again
Cornwall → 1497
tax for war against Scotland raised aggressively from the Cornish
despite Parliament specifying that only those who earned over 20 shillings a year from land should be taxed
Cornish were resentful having to pay for a far-away nobleman’s war → fuelled by geography and regional identity
rebellion led by Flamanck and Joseph broke out
initially meant to be a peaceful demonstration, marching to London to present their grievenaces
temporarily hijacked by Warbeck, however he left due to their lack of menace
then joined by Lord Audley → out of favour with Henry and with financial difficulties
reached Blackheath, where they were stopped
leaders were executed, and the rebels were killed
highlighted the widespread resentment, as people (including nobles) either joined the march or sympathised
the fact that Henry let this rebellion continue is a sign of his increasing strength as a monarch, that he did not feel threatened by it
Pretenders
Lambert Simnel + rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln
Simnel was pretending to be the Earl of Warwick (gave him the rightful claim to the throne), however, there wasn’t much domestic support
not enough money to support a war, lots of rebels were locked up
did have some foreign support
Margaret of Burgundy recognised Simnel as her nephew and raised 2,000 mercenaries → sent to Ireland in April, 1487
meanwhile, Simnel landed in Ireland → many Irish magnates accepted Simnel as the Earl of Warwick, including the Earl of Kildare
Simnel was crowned in Dublin Cathedral on the 24th May, 1487
they marched though Cumbria and North Yorkshire, although the did not gain much support
their army had about 8,000 men who fought against Henry’s 12,000 men at Stoke
Henry won and captured Simnel
was not executed, rather made a kitchen boy
Significance
Battle of Stoke effectively ended the Wars of the Roses
meant that Henry’s position was now much more secure
Henry won due to:
shrewdness and hard work
appointed Earl of Northumberland (had been a Yorkist supporter) to support him, neutralising Yorkist support in the North
organisational skills and military leadership of key supporters
willingness of landowners in many parts of the country to support his cause
Henry’s lenient treatment of the rebels won over some Yorkists
started to develop the policy of using bonds of good behaviour
Perkin Warbeck Imposture
1491 → Warbeck began to impersonate Richard, Duke of York in Ireland
1492 → he fled to the court of Margaret of Burgundy
he was trained as a potential Yorkist prince and began to draw English courtiers into his conspiracies
1495 → he attempted to land in England but was quickly defeated
fled to the court of James IV of Scotland
Henry’s spies uncovered and executed conspirators, including Sir William Stanley
1496 → tried to invade England with a small Scottish force, but this soon retreated
Treaty of Ayton was signed
1497 → tried to claim the throne by exploiting the Cornish Rebellion
forces were crushed and Warbeck surrendered
treated leniently at first, but then he tried to escape
1499 → tried and executed along with the Earl of Warwick
Significance
patronage from foreign rulers demonstrated how fragile Henry’s strength was considered to be by other rulers
Sir William Stanley’s involvement showed how vulnerable Henry was, even within his own household
Edmund de la Pole and Richard de la Pole → 1506
between 1498-1506 Edmund lived in exile, under the protection of Margaret of Burgundy
1506 → returned to England and was imprisoned in the Tower of London
1513 → executed by Henry VIII
Richard had been exiled until his death fighting for France at the Battle of Pavia, 1525
Significance
imprisonment of Suffolk effectively eliminated the remaining threats
only Richard de la Pole remained
Henry VII’s Government
Councils and the Court
The Council
were a council of advisors, supporting the king in making key decisions
advised the king
administered the realm on the King’s behalf
made legal judgement
three main types of councillor
nobles, such as Lord Daubeney, though the working Council only rarely included the great magnates
Churchmen, e.g. John Morton and Richard Fox, who often had legal training and were excellent administrators
Laymen (gentry or lawyers) who were skilled administrators e.g. Sir Reginald Bray and Edmund Dudley
Council was a permanent body with a core membership → no established procedures
very small → only 227 councillors in totality, with only 150 at any given time → longevity gave stability to Henry’s reign
sometimes members would meet separately to discuss legal or administrative issues
advice was not limited to the Council → non-councillors could also advice, e.g. Lady Margaret Beaufort
The Council Learned (in the Law)
designed to maintain the king’s revenue and to exploit his prerogative rights
developed the system of bonds and recognisances, ensuring it worked effectively
secured loyalty and raised finance
not a recognised court of law, and there was no right of appeal against it
was important in maintaining Henry’s authority as well as in raising finances
1503 → Empson joined by Edmund Dudley
able and conscientious bureaucrats → ruthlessly extracted money from the king’s subjects; so were unpopular and feared
they created enemies amongst some of the king’s other advisers
were removed and executed after Henry’s death
Dudley confessed that he had acted illegally in more than 20 cases
Court and Household
1485 → court comprised of:
the household proper → responsible for looking after the king, courtiers and guests
they were supervised by the Lord Steward
the Chamber → presided over by the Lord Chamberlain; a powerful and influential courtier who was also a member of the king’s Council
he often spoke for the monarch
1495 → Henry remodelled the Chamber as the Privy Chamber after the Perkin Warbeck conspiracy
was made difficult for people to (re)gain the King’s favour
cut Henry off from traditional kingly contacts at court
Parliament
met infrequently, so was not central to government
House of Commons and the House of Lords → House of Lords was the most important
Parliament could only be called by the king → Henry demonstrated his right to rule by calling his first parliament in November, 1485
he called 7 parliaments throughout his reign, with 5 being called in the first decade of his reign, and the other 2 in the remaining 14 years
shows Henry’s increasing power → as he felt more secure, he could bypass Parliament
early Parliament action:
national security → passed numerous Acts of Attainder
individuals could be declared guilty without a trial (if they were alive)
property would be forfeit to the Crown (if they were dead)
raising revenue
tonnage and poundage (customs revenue) was granted to him for life in his first parliament
other parliament granted him extraordinary revenue
taxation granted as a one-off payment e.g. if he wanted to wage a war
Domestic Policy: Justice and the Maintenance of Order
Regional government → in the hands of the nobility
great magnates only really held power in the north of England, following the land loss during the Wars of the Roses
Stanleys controlled the north-west
Earl of Northumberland ruled the north-east until 1489 → when the Earl of Surrey was released from prison and sent to the north
Surrey served loyally for ten years
ruled the north through the Council of the North
other regional councils including Wales and the Marches and in Ireland
Wales → due to inheritance, purchase, death and forfeiture, barely half a dozen Marcher Lordships remained in private hands, meaning that Henry governed, directly and indirectly, a larger part of Wales than any other prior king
Henry preferred to rely on the lesser magnates → trusted few
employed a spying network to ensure the nobility remained loyal
Local government → justices of the peace
`worked with the sheriff (responsible for elections to Parliament and peace-keeping)
JPs were unpaid and tended to be local gentry
some were royal officials
met four times a year → to deliver judgements on disputes
were responsible for routine administration
e.g. complaints against local officials, maintenance of law and order
more serious cases were heard at the courts of assize by judges appointed by the Crown
Court of King’s Bench dealt with appeals from the quarters sessions and courts of assize → they could overturn the decisions of the lesser courts
Domestic Policy: Improving Royal Finances
Crown Lands → lands held by the king via inheritance or confiscation
made up a large proportion of ordinary revenue
£12,000 per year at the beginning of the reign, collected inefficiently by the Court of Exchequer
by the end of the reign this had risen to around £42,000 per year, primarily as he had changed how it was collected
From 1489 → administered through the Chamber
Profits from feudal dues → paid by tenants-in-chief
REASONS
warship → the king looked after the heir and the land if the heir was an orphaned minor
livery → a fine paid to recover lands from wardship
relief → money paid to the king as land was inherited
escheats → payments made when land reverted to the crown
marriage dues → paid by heiresses when getting married
feudal aid → the Crown’s right to impose taxes for certain services
granted in 1504
TIMELINE
1487 → earned under £350 per annum
1494 → earned over £1,500 per annum
1502 → Robert Willoughby de Broke paid £400 for livery
1504 → knighting of Prince Arthur led to £30,000 levied under feudal aid
1507 → earned over £6,000 per annum
Other Sources
customs revenue → tonnage and poundage
types
prerogative duties → exports of wool, woolfells, leather and cloth
import and export duties on tonnage (wine) and poundage (other exported goods), as well as a subsidy on wool exports
figures
£30,000 per annum under Henry VI due to a decline in wool export, but then rose to £40,000 under Henry VII due in part to the 1507 Book of Rates → took inflation into account
Legal System and the Profits of Justice → fees paid for royal writes an letters; no court action could start without them
were fines levied by the court, sometimes even used in treasonable cases which should have incurred the death penalty
shows Henry’s increasing focus on economic stability, as he prioritised financial gain over removing his opposition
Bonds and Recognisances → bonds were written agreements in which a person would pay money if their promise was not kept; recognisances were formal acknowledgements of a debt/obligation in which money was to be paid in the obligation not met
1491 → friends of the Marquis of Dorset (stepson of Edward IV) signed bonds worth £10,000 as a promise of his good behaviour
Clerical Taxes and Grants → simony was the selling of Church appointments; vacant bishoprics was when the king protected the revenue of a bishopric vacancy due to the death of a bishop
1489 → Convocations voted £25,000 towards the French war
charged £300 for the Archdeaconry of Buckingham
many bishops died later in the reign → Henry received over £6,000 per annum as a result
Loans → taken from richer subjects in times of emergency, but were repaid
Henry raised £203,000 throughout his reign
Benevolences → forced loans with no repayment
1491 → Henry raised £48,500 to take the army to France
Parliamentary Grants → helped the King when the national interest was threatened
essentially a tax → 1/15th the value of goods in rural areas, and 1/10th the value in the urban areas
around £30,000 was collected in total
used
1487 → request to pay for the Battle of Stoke
1489 → request to go to war with the French
1496 → request for defence against the Scots + Warbeck
the French Pension → paid by the French king to remove the English army during the Breton crisis
total of £159,000 to be paid in annual instalments of £5,000
England’s Relations with Scotland and Other Foreign Powers
Henry VII’s relations with foreign powers
Aims
maintain good relations with European powers → this would allow him to concentrate on consolidating power domestically
gain international recognition for the Tudor dynasty
maintain national security
defend English trading interests
Brittany and France
1487 →French invaded Brittany (had been the last independent area within France)
able to do this with the pretext of Duke Francis II having died without a male heir
1489 → Treaty of Redon; Henry agreed to support Duchess Anne’s claim (daughter of Francis)
he was anxious not to antagonise the French
1491 → 6,000 English ‘volunteer's’ were sent to Britanny
Anne surrendered to the French
arranged for her to marry Charles VIII of France → ended Breton independence
important that England sent volunteers → Henry didn’t want to be seen to be engaging in conflict against the French
1492 → Henry raised two parliamentary subsidies and invaded France with 26,000 men
Henry did this as Charles was more preoccupied with Italy than he was with England → he was gambling; fate, luck
French rapidly sought peace
November, 1492 → Treaty of Etaples
Charles agreed that he would no longer assist pretenders to the English throne (accepted Henry as the rightful English king), agreed to pay £159,000, in annual instalments of £5,000
this money was worth around 5% of Henry’s total annual income
this was a relative success, as Henry had been able to defend national and dynastic interests
he had improved his financial position → Treaty of Etaples
ensured a period of relative friendliness in Anglo-French relations
Burgundy, the Netherlands, HRE
ports of Netherlands were important for English cloth trade (61% of wool exports)
Netherlands was under the control of Burgundy → Margaret of Burgundy had married Charles the Bold, who died in 1477 meaning that Margaret ruled until Maximilian became Holy Roman Emperor in 1493
they supported the pretenders to Henry’s throne
timeline
1493 → Henry broke trade relations with Burgundy after Margaret’s support for Warbeck
shows he was more concerned with securing his dynasty than with protecting the commercial interests of London → embargo harmed both the English and Flemish economies
1496 → Henry and Philip IV agreed the Intercursus Magnus
ended the trade embargo
Margaret recognised Henry’s position as King
allowed English merchants to trade freely in all parts of Burgundy apart from Flanders
1503 → death of Margaret of Burgundy
1506 → Philip and Joana blown into the English coast as they set out for Spain following Isabella’s death → Henry VII entertained them and negotiated two treaties
Treaty of Windsor → recognised Philip’s claim to Castile
each promised to assist one another against rebels
Intercursus Malus → trade agreement that was overgenerous to the English, however it ended when Philip died in September
Philip also handed over the Earl of Suffolk who had been sheltering in Burgundy
marriage arranged between Henry and Philip’s sister Margaret, although nothing actually happened with this
1507 → third treaty reverted to the terms of the Intercursus Magnus
1508 → Henry VII diplomatically isolated as he was not a signatory to the League of Cambrai
formed by the HRE, Spain, France and the Papacy to defend Christendom in Italy but was really to limit the power of Venice
Spain
1489 → Treaty of Medina del Campo signed
agreed a marriage alliance between Arthur and Catherine of Aragon
allowed equal trading rights for merchants
fixed customs duties at a rate favourable for English traders
1494 → Navigation Act; placed on England by Spain as a result of England being allied with France
1501 → marriage between Arthur and Catherine
1502 → Arthur died, so Henry proposed a new marriage between Catherine and Henry VIII (he wanted to retain Catherine’s dowry → economy)
1503 treaty signed, with a wedding planned for 1506
1504 → Isabella died; Henry supported the claims of Juana to succeed
1506 → Philip died → led Ferdinand to deprive Juana of her inheritance
marriage between Henry and Catherine was jeopardised and did not take place until 1509
Scotland → often allied itself with France, Auld Alliance
1485-95 → Anglo-Scottish relations were tense
1495-96 → James IV of Scotland supported Warbeck, providing a small army to invade England in 1496
this threatened war
1497 → England and Scotland made the Truce of Ayton (became a full peace treaty in 1502
agreed the marriage of Margaret to James IV
agreed that Scotland would not harbour any pretenders
1503 → James IV married Henry’s daughter Margaret
Ireland
Henry only ruled the Pale which was the land around Dublin → the rest was ruled by chieftains
Earl of Kildare was the Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1477
threat due to Yorkist sympathies
Henry replaced Kildare with Sir Edward Poynings who passed the 1495 Poynings Law → declared that the Irish Parliament needed the approval of the English monarch before it could pass any laws
Kildare was persuaded to abandon the Yorkist cause and was reinstated in 1495
1500 → Henry had amassed and established a reasonable level of control in Ireland
Securing the Succession and Marriage Alliances
Henry had four children who survived childhood → so he had four heirs
new heir Henry was a child at the time of Henry VII’s death
Yorkists had a powerful claimant in the Earl of Suffolk
succession remained insecure → rested on the survival and acceptance by ministers of Prince Henry
faction declared for Henry → Bishop Fox + Margaret Beaufort
Empson + Dudley were arrested
England’s Society at the End of the 15th Century
Structure of Society → primarily a feudal system, however there was a growing professional and mercantile group (in London) and growing social mobility
Nobility → dominated landownership
made up of 50-60 peers (nobles) who were entitled to sit in the House of Lords
when a noble family died out they were replaced by others who had acquired the King’s favour
however, Henry distrusted the nobility so was reluctant to create new peers → number of peers dropped from 50 at the start of his rein to 35
1487 →Henry sought in a law to limit the power of the magnates
restricted the practice of retainers to reduce their power (as these retainers could be used for military purposes e.g. uprising)
Churchmen → hierarchy with the Church owning land, then the Archbishops who were power and part of the government, then the Bishops/Abbots of large monastic houses who were important, with bishops often being regional leaders → the bottom were the Parish priests + curates
important both for its spiritual role but also as a big landowner
Churchmen had dual allegiance → both the Pope + King
Henry VII ensured that he has men of administrative ability as archbishops and bishops, preferring those with legal training e.g. Morton and Fox
parish level → dealt with the spiritual needs of the ordinary people
on a larger scale, their influence was all-pervasive and the Church had its own courts (clergy or religious crimes tried here e.g. adultery)
Gentry → made up of about 500 knights, 800 esquires and 5,000 gentlemen (1500)
greater gentry → often great landowners, but some sough knighthoods to confirm their social status
esquires and mere gentry → far more numerous, and had far less social prestige than the greater gentry; were also landowners
both mere and greater may have been office-holders
made up about 1% of the total population
Commoners → around 2 million; beneath the gentry
towns and cities
at the top were the educated professionals and the merchants
then the shopkeepers and the skilled tradesmen
they were influential in borough corporations, guilds and confraternities
bottom were unskilled urban workers and apprentices, beggars, and prostitutes
countryside
at the top were the yeoman farmers who farmed substantial properties
then came the husbandmen → rich peasantry who had bought or rented their own farms
then at the bottom were the labouring peasants who did not have their own land
they were insecure and relied on selling their labour
also at the bottom were the vagrants + beggars
Regional Divisions → arose from: (in an essay can mention rebellions from consolidation)
demographic differences → imaginary boundary
sparsely populated rural areas to the north-west contained ¼ of the population
¾ lived in more densely populated counties to the south-east
differences in agriculture → boundary going from Teesmouth to Weymouth shows a split between mixed farming and purely pastoral farming
social attitudes
people from London saw northerners as less refined
northerners envied the southern wealth
government structures
separate councils for the north, Wales, Ireland and the Welsh Marches
nobles had considerable influence across county boundaries
some areas, however, enjoyed significant independence e.g. County Palatines of Chester and Durham
Church influence
varied by area
equally cut across other boundaries
linguistic and cultural differences
most notable in Wales, Cornwall and Ireland
they were not English and had their own linguistic and regional identity
seen during the Cornwall rebellion
Economic Development → most of the population made a living from agriculture; only 10% lived in towns or cities, with London containing more than 50,000 people
Agrarian Economy
move towards sheep farming at the expense of arable crops
due to an increase in population and need for wool during the 1480s and 90s
development was most acute in the lowland zone (south + east of aforementioned imaginary boundary)
growth of sheep farming meant the loss of common land and changes to the strip system (enclosure)
was a step away from open-field husbandry and the enjoyment of common rights
overall, however, English agriculture changed little during the late 15th and early 16th century
Trade and Industry → cloth amounted to about 90% of English exports
Merchant Adventurers → were an English company which controlled the cloth trade
dominated London’s cloth trade with Antwerp
matched the dominance of the wool trade by the Merchants of the Staple
had a positive relation with the crown
could act as the voice of the industry when commercial needs were subordinated to national policy
King used their expertise in the negotiation of Intercursus Magnus and Malus
Industries for export
mining → tin, lead, coal and iron ore
required capital investment, although was fairly small scale
metal working
leatherwork
shipbuilding
papermaking
brewing
cloth → 90% of English exports, increased by 60% under Henry VII
Trade Timeline → Henry used this to boost wealth (customs duties + taxes) and secure positive relations with foreign powers, thus boosting his security
1485
Navigation Act with France, ruling that only English ships could carry Gascony wine to and from English ports
designed to boost English shipbuilding and challenge the Hanseatic League
1486
French trade restrictions from before Henry’s reign were removed
Henry confirmed the rights of the Hanseatic League
1487
Navigation Act on Toulouse with France, ruling that only English ships could carry woad (blue dye) to and from English ports
commercial agreement with Burgundy, lasting one year
Henry banned the export of unfinished cloth by alien merchants
1489
Treaty of Medina del Campo allowed equal trading rights for merchants from both countries and fixed customs duties at a rate favourable for English traders
prohibition on the Hanseatic League’s exportation of bullion
1492
Treaty of Etaples reduced trade restrictions
1493
ban on English traders using Burgundy due to Maximillian’s support of Perkin Warbeck
Henry paid minimal compensation when the Hanseatic League’s London headquarters were attacked by a mob of 500 rival merchants
1494
Spain imposed a Navigation Act on England, damaging trade
presumably due to England allying itself with France
1495
France removed restrictions on trade with England in return for English neutrality in the Italian Wars
1496
Intercursus Magnus
between Henry and Philip IV, ending Henry’s 1493 embargo on trade with the Netherlands
English merchants could export to any part of Burgundy (except Flanders)
merchants would be granted swift and fair justice
disputes would be resolved swiftly and fairly
1497
trading privileges restored to English merchants by the crown
1504
Henry supported an Act restoring all the Hanseatic League’s privileges
at a time when he was trying to gain custody of the Earl of Suffolk → fugitive in Germany
1506
Intercursus Malus → never implemented
Importance of Trade
customs duties increased by 20% → from £33,000 in 1485 to over £40,000 in 1509
Henry responsible for the creation of a small Royal Navy and Europe’s first dry dock at Portsmouth
only 9 battleships at the navy → shows it was less for security more for economic purposes
created new jobs and more ships for trading
HOWEVER → the Hanseatic League was largely successful in limiting the development of English trading interests in the Baltic
Early English Exploration
1497
John Cabot sailed from Bristol in search of new fishing grounds (England had been excluded from Iceland waters by the Hanseatic League)
with authorisation from Henry VII
found Newfoundland and reported the existence of extensive fishing grounds
failed to return from a second voyage in 1498
1499/1500
William Weston (also from Bristol) led an expedition to the New World
first Englishman to have done so
1508
Sebastian Cabot (John Cabot’s son) received sponsorship from the King to attempt to find the north-west passage to Asia
north Atlantic exploration tailed off with the accession of Henry VIII → had little appetite for supporting such enterprises
Summary
reign of Henry VII was a period of relative economic stability
economy remained firmly based on agriculture with some small-scale industrial enterprises
King made some attempts to encourage English trade
desire to increase wealth
concern for dynastic security
Religion, Humanism, Arts and Learning
Religion in the reign of Henry VII
the function of the Church and churchmen
all English people belonged to the Catholic Church
Role of the church in England
means of maintaining social control
important political role (in both domestic and international affairs)
catered for the population’s spiritual needs
provided opportunities for employment and social advancement
Church was administered through the archbishops of Canterbury + York
also 17 dioceses, each run under a bishop
Pope was not expected to interfere in the running of the Church → thus senior churchmen enjoyed position of great political power + influence
Religious community, belief and services
Church provided a framework for controlling thinking and behaviour
reinforced allegiance to authority and, in particular, the monarch
spread and upheld Catholic Christian teaching
was a provider of education
offered ways by wich a person could acquire grace in order to reach heaven
minimise the time a soul spent in purgatory
Church’s Social Role
had an important role in the community
lay-people would do the following:
donate towards rebuilding parish church buildings or pay for church objects
leave money to the parish churches in their wills
to enhance worship, perpetuate their memory and reduce time in purgatory
gather together in a confraternity to provide collectively for Masses or funeral costs of members
also to help maintain church fabric, make charitable donations and socialise
take part in the practice of ‘beating the bounds’ on Rogation Sunday
walking around the parish boundaries, praying for protection for the parish
individual religious experience was becoming increasingly important
mystics believed in the personal communication of the individual with God
Religious Orders
Monastic Orders
1% of adult males were monks → lived in around 900 monasteries
Benedictine Order had large houses
some operated cathedrals
members came from wealthier parts of society
Cistercian and Carthusian monasteries were in more remote, rural areas
Friars
three main orders → Dominicans, Franciscans and Augustinians
worked among lay people
were largely supported by charitable donations
recruited from lower down the social scale than the larger monasteries
declining in importance
Nunneries
enjoyed less prestige than monasteries
were populated by women considered unsuitable for marriage
often relatively poor
The Lollards, Heresy and Anticlericalism
small minority of people were critical of the beliefs and practices of the Church
Lollardy → followed teachings of John Wycliffe continued in pockets around Britain
emphasised the importance of understanding the Bible and wanted it translated into English
were sceptical about transubstantiation and the principles of the Eucharist
viewed the Catholic Church as corrupt
1401 → burning of heretics had been introduced
few had died this way, and by the late 15th century Lollardy was in decline, with other forms of heresy being rare
criticism of the Church existed but anticlericalism was not widespread
Humanism, Arts and Learning
Humanism and Humanists
development of the Renaissance → concerned with establishing the reliability of Latin and Greek translations by going back to the original texts
intellectual movement affecting religious teaching, politics and economics
impact was restricted to a minority of the educated nobility and gentry
made only a limited impression on England
influenced by the 1401 visit of the Dutch scholar, Erasmus
he criticised Church abuses and sought to regenerate Christianity
via education + rejection of traditional ceremonies
William Grocyn
discovered humanism in Florence
lectured on Plato and Aristotle at Oxford
Thomas Linacre
discovered humanism in Florence
influenced by scientific thinking → took a medical degree in Padua
John Colet
dean of St Paul’s Cathedral and refounded St Paul’s School in 1512
saw humanist scholarly approaches as a way to reform the Church from within
Thomas More
distinguished lawyer and humanist scholar
friendship with Erasmus boosted humanist ideas under Henry VIII
humanists patronised education → educational opportunities increased with the spread of grammar schools (for the wealthy) and the founding of new Cambridge colleges
Margaret Beaufort: 1505 founded Christ’s College, 1511 founded St John’s
she also established the Lady Margaret Professorships of Divinity at both Oxford and Cambridge and were a direct expression of the humanist belief that scholarship should be publicly supported and widely available
1476 → William Caxton brought printing to England, so printed everything from medieval works to modern Erasmus
meant that more texts became available, the language became more standardised and literacy increased
Henry used it for propaganda purposes
Other Arts
drama was popular with church-ale festivals → troupes of players toured the country
often set out simple moral and religious messages
music ranged from local wind groups → entertained crowds on saints’ days
to great choral performances in the country’s cathedrals
composers benefited from the patronage of important nobles or even the king
Gothic perpendicular style → approved by Henry VII in 1502 for the Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey
much building and rebuilding of parish churches was occurring → including major wool churches of East Anglia e.g. Lavenham