APUSH Chapter 11

Individualism and the Ethic of the Middle Class

Economic Growth and Social Isolation

  • Rapid economic changes during the 19th century significantly weakened traditional social structures that had long provided individuals with community and familial support.

  • Alexis de Tocqueville (1835): Described individualism as a phenomenon particularly observed among native-born white Americans, where they became socially isolated and increasingly detached from family and community ties. This detachment raised concerns about the erosion of civic responsibility and collective well-being.

Ralph Waldo Emerson and Transcendentalism

Celebration of Individuality

  • Ralph Waldo Emerson: A pivotal figure within the transcendentalist movement, Emerson championed the importance of self-reliance, intuition, and the potential of the individual to experience personal truths outside institutional constraints.

  • Resigned from organized religion in 1832, which led him to focus on exploring personal freedom, seeking connection with nature, and encouraging others to rediscover their inherent worth and capabilities.

Transcendentalist Beliefs

  • Grounded in ideas influenced by European romanticism, transcendentalists valued personal intuition over societal norms and conventions. This philosophy posited that individuals could find a deeper truth in their connection to the world around them.

  • Emerson believed in a mystical union between the individual and nature as a source of truth, suggesting that understanding the natural world could lead to self-discovery and enlightenment.

Cultural Impact

  • Emerson's ideas and writings inspired the American Renaissance, a flourishing of literature, art, and philosophy in the 19th century that emphasized original thought and artistic expression.

  • The lyceum movement (beginning in 1826) saw Emerson and other transcendentalists deliver lectures that spread these transformative ideas across various societal strata, particularly the burgeoning middle class.

Social Impact of Transcendentalism

Moral Responsibility

  • Emerson promoted the notion of moral responsibility, emphasizing self-discipline, civic engagement, and a spiritual connection to the divine through nature. He was notably concerned about the encroachment of materialism, warning that commodification could detrimentally affect spiritual lives: "Things are in the saddle and ride mankind."

Communal Experiments

  • Brook Farm: Founded by transcendentalists in the 1840s, the community aimed to create a self-sustaining lifestyle grounded in transcendental ideals. However, they faced economic difficulties and social conflicts which led to its eventual failure.

  • After the decline of such communal experiments, transcendentalists pivoted towards reforming established institutions rather than attempting to create new models of society.

Major Figures Influenced by Emerson

  • Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862): A close follower of Emerson, Thoreau is best remembered for his work, Walden, where he detailed his two-year experiment in simple, solitary living on Walden Pond, advocating for individuality and a life of purpose. He famously stated, "If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer."

  • Thoreau was also an early advocate for nonviolent resistance, famously opposing unjust laws, particularly in relation to slavery and the Mexican-American War.

  • Margaret Fuller (1810–1850): A key figure in both the transcendentalist movement and the early women’s rights movement. Fuller emphasized psychological and social independence for women, challenging norms of her time. She worked on The Dial, a transcendentalist magazine, and authored Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844), where she articulated the need for equality and women’s empowerment.

  • Walt Whitman (1819–1892): Another prominent figure who embraced Emersonian ideals in his seminal work, Leaves of Grass. He stressed the importance of individual identity and the interconnectedness of all people, celebrating the human experience and the diversity of American life.

Pessimistic Counterpoints to Transcendentalism

  • Nathaniel Hawthorne & Herman Melville: These writers explored the darker consequences of excessive individualism in their works.

    • Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter: Examines the societal repercussions of defying social norms and the ensuing tragedy faced by individuals.

    • Melville’s Moby Dick: Illustrates how the relentless pursuit of meaning and truth can lead to obsession and disastrous consequences.

Utopian Communities and Their Ideologies

Movement Towards Communal Living

  • Discontent with market society prompted various groups, particularly among farmers and religious idealists, to establish utopian communities in hopes of a reformed social order.

Religious Communalism

  • Shakers: Founded by Mother Ann Lee in the 18th century, they embraced celibacy, communal living, and a countercultural lifestyle that challenged traditional gender roles. Their practices and beliefs led to unique societal structures.

  • Fourierism: Advocated for living in cooperative phalanxes, promoting communal living; however, most Fourierist communities failed due to internal disagreements.

  • Oneida Community: Founded by John Humphrey Noyes, utilized a practice called complex marriage, which enabled communal child-rearing and relationships. It became economically successful in silverware manufacturing.

  • Mormons: After the death of founder Joseph Smith, Brigham Young led the Mormons to Utah, where they established a tightly-knit community characterized by a conservative social agenda and considerable economic success.

Urbanization and Emerging Social Norms

Urban Changes

  • Explosive population growth in urban areas during this period led to severe issues such as poverty, overcrowding, and sanitation crises.

  • The rise in urban poverty saw women, particularly young ones, turning to prostitution as a means of economic survival, which brought about complex social dynamics surrounding gender, sexuality, and morality.

Cultural Developments

  • The period also witnessed the rise of popular entertainment forms. Minstrel shows became prevalent, perpetuating racial stereotypes while simultaneously critiquing societal norms and presenting racial issues for public discussion.

Native Reactions and Nativism

  • Immigration Patterns: The massive influx of Irish and German immigrants fundamentally reshaped the dynamics within urban areas, prompting a backlash from nativist movements fueled by fears of cultural dilution and threat to established American values.

  • Nativism: These movements sought to limit immigration and resist the social and political influence of foreign communities, often leading to discrimination against new immigrants.

Abolitionist Movement and Women’s Rights

Overlap of Movements

  • There was a significant overlap between the abolitionist movement and the early women’s rights movement. Many women engaged in abolitionism subsequently became leading voices for women’s rights, advocating against traditional gender roles in tandem with their fight against racial injustices.

  • The Seneca Falls Convention (1848): This landmark event marked the formal beginning of the women’s rights movement in the United States, emphasizing equality and the assertion that women should enjoy the same rights as men, as articulated in the Declaration of Independence.

Summary of the Era

  • The mid-nineteenth century was a time of profound social and ideological transformation, with overlapping movements of individualism, communalism, abolitionism, and the drive for women’s rights coalescing against a backdrop of rapid historical change, including urbanization and shifts in cultural norms. These transformations sparked fervent debates about morality, gender roles, and the very fabric of American life, framing the nation’s evolving identity in an increasingly complex society.