Chapter 8: Deciding About Parenthood

Chapter 8: Deciding About Parenthood

Lamanna/Riedmann/Stewart, Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society, 14th Edition.

Chapter Outline

  • Fertility Trends in the United States

  • Things to Consider When Deciding about Parenthood

  • Having Children: Options and Circumstances

  • Preventing Pregnancy

  • Abortion

  • Involuntary Infertility and Reproductive Technology

  • Adoption

Fertility Trends in the United States

  • Total Fertility Rate (TFR): The total number of live births a typical woman will have over her lifetime.

    • TFR dropped sharply from over 3.5 during the baby boom (mid-20th century) to a record low of 1.7 in 1976.

    • In recent years, TFR has fluctuated around 2.0.

    • Current U.S. fertility rate is below the replacement fertility level, the level necessary for a society to replace its population.

Family Size

  • The ideal family size in the United States is currently regarded as having two children.

  • Large families face social stigma, yet some families choose larger sizes for religious reasons (e.g., Quiverfull movement).

Historical Patterns of Fertility and Family Size

  • The decline in U.S. fertility is ongoing and traces back to the early 1800s.

    • As industrialization progressed and women's employment rose, fertility rates decreased.

    • Improved living conditions reduced infant mortality rates, leading to fewer births necessary for child survival.

  • General Family Size Trends:

    • Most couples currently aspire to have one girl and one boy.

    • Childbearing has increasingly shifted to later ages:

    • The teen birth rate for women aged 15 to 19 has declined significantly since the mid-1950s.

Differential Fertility Rates by Education, Income, and Race/Ethnicity

  • Individuals and couples with higher education and income typically have fewer children.

    • Having children incurs high opportunity costs—things parents must forfeit to become parents.

  • Fertility rates have declined across all racial and ethnic categories since 1990.

    • Beliefs and values regarding childbearing vary culturally; as immigrants assimilate into American culture, their birth rates generally converge with those of the wider population.

Things to Consider When Deciding About Parenthood

  • Decisions regarding parenthood are complex and not always made consciously.

    • In 2008, approximately 50% of all pregnancies in the U.S. were unintended.

    • Rates of unintended pregnancy are notably higher among younger, lower-income, less educated, and African American women, as well as cohabiting women.

  • Pronatalist Bias: Social pressure to have children is more pronounced in the U.S. than in many other Western nations, leading to perceived expectations to become parents, even among same-sex couples.

    • Conversely, some argue that the U.S. exhibits structural antinatalism, where insufficient support exists for parents and children compared to other economically similar nations, contributing to a higher number of impoverished children.

How Children Affect Happiness

  • Children can offer a sense of vitality and purpose within the household, broadening the parent's role.

    • Parents assume multiple nurturing roles: advocates, authority figures, counselors, caregivers, and playmates.

Rewards and Costs of Parenthood

  • Value of Children Perspective: Historically, children were considered economic assets; however, the shift to an industrial economy emphasized children as economic liabilities.

  • A 2015 study estimated that raising a child to age 18 costs a middle-income family $233,610 (excluding college expenses).

    • Parents must also consider indirect opportunity costs, including potential lost wages and decreased personal opportunities.

How Children Affect Couple Happiness

  • Research indicates children, especially young ones, stabilize a relationship but do not guarantee happiness.

    • Parents report lower marital satisfaction than nonparents, with dissatisfaction typically increasing with the number of children.

    • Parents also face higher occurrences of depression compared to their nonparent counterparts.

Choosing to be Childfree

  • An estimated 50% of women aged 40-44 in the U.S. choose not to have children due to personal preference (voluntary childlessness).

  • Societal norms regarding childlessness vary by culture and country.

    • The U.S. retains strong fertility norms which traditionally discourage childlessness and only-child families.

  • Characteristics of voluntarily childless individuals:

    • Higher educational attainment, managerial or professional employment, higher income levels, urban living, progressive gender roles, and lack of religious affiliation.

  • Voluntary childlessness is most challenging for individuals in their late 30s and 40s as their peers focus on parenting.

  • Generally, older childfree individuals report higher life satisfaction and less stress than parents.

Having Children: Options and Circumstances

  • Decisions about parenthood are influenced by diverse circumstances and options.

  • Timing Parenthood:

    • The average age of first-time parents is on the rise.

    • Birthrates among teenagers have declined, while birthrates for women in their 40s are increasing.

  • Reasons for Delaying Parenthood:

    • Includes later marriage, education completion, and career establishment.

    • Delayed parenting is manageable due to reliable contraception and advancements in assisted reproduction technologies.

Earlier Parenthood

  • Early parenting allows more time for activities with grandchildren but may hinder educational advancement and career initiation.

    • Young parents often face increased marital strain due to financial limitations or a lack of maturity to handle family responsibilities.

Later Parenthood

  • Delayed parenthood can result in increased maturity and preparation for parenting.

    • Older parents generally experience more joy with parenthood compared to younger parents, despite facing susceptibility to fertility declines and reproductive risks.

    • Children of older parents often benefit from enhanced financial security and parental attention, albeit with higher concerns regarding parental health and mortality.

Child Spacing

  • The optimal spacing between children for health benefits is identified as 18 to 24 months, though less than 5 years is also considered acceptable.

    • Prospective parents should understand the associated trade-offs involved in the timing of parenthood.

Having Only One Child

  • Increasing Trend of one-child families attributed to:

    • Women's professional opportunities

    • Insufficient support for parents

    • High costs associated with raising a child through college

    • Enhanced peer support

  • Advantages of One-Child Families:

    • Reduced feeling of being overwhelmed, more financial resources, equitable domestic responsibilities, higher educational expectations, and improved knowing of children's social circles.

  • Disadvantages of One-Child Families:

    • Lack of sibling relationships may impose extrinsic pressure to succeed; adults might face burdens in caring for elder parents alone; and increased anxiety regarding the only child's safety and success.

Nonmarital Births

  • A significant number of individuals are embracing parenthood outside of marriage.

    • 62% of Americans see having children out of wedlock as morally acceptable.

    • Roughly 40% of births are to unmarried women, with 42% of these births occurring to unpartnered women and 58% to cohabitating couples.

Births to Unmarried Women

  • Such births account for a notable percentage of overall births as of 2017.

Single Mothers by Choice

  • Characteristics of single mothers by choice:

    • Older, educated, financially stable, and seeing themselves as responsible and capable of conforming to family norms.

    • Some term themselves "moral pioneers" in family definition.

Births to Adolescents

  • Teenage childbearing has decreased by 77% from 1957 to 2015, reaching record lows.

    • Teenage parents often struggle with poor educational and job prospects and high poverty rates.

- Perceived benefits of early parenthood encompass bonding benefits with partners, independence, and emotional connections with infants.\n

Multipartnered Fertility (MPF)

  • Defining Multipartnered Fertility (MPF): Occurrence of having children with more than one biological partner.

    • About 10% of adults have children with multiple partners; this phenomenon is most prevalent in African American populations and younger parents.

    • Increasing instances of nonmarital childbearing contribute to complex family dynamics but often result in weaker ties with extended family.

Preventing Pregnancy

  • The notable decline in fertility rates over the past fifty years is largely attributed to improved access to contraception.

    • The pill stands as the most commonly used birth control method, with surgical sterilization following.

    • Birth control options vary by social class, with family-planning traditionally focused on women due to greater physical and opportunity costs.

Abortion

  • Definition: The expulsion of the embryo or fetus from the uterus, either through surgical or pharmaceutical means.

    • One in four American women will experience an abortion by age 45, with rates declining since 1980.

    • Decisions are frequently influenced by circumstances surrounding unintended pregnancies.

Reasons for Abortion

  • Top reasons for seeking an abortion include:

    • Responsibility concerns (55%)

    • Interference with education/work/family care (74%)

    • Financial unpreparedness (73%)

    • Desire to avoid single motherhood or relationship issues (48%)

    • Completion of childbearing (38%)

    • Not feeling prepared to parent (33%).

The Politics of Family Planning, Contraception, and Abortion

  • The landmark 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade legalized abortion nationwide.

    • The legality of abortion remains contested, with ongoing restrictions being put in place across various states.

    • According to a 2019 poll:

    • 25% of adults believe abortion should be legal under any circumstances.

    • 53% believe it should be legal only under certain conditions.

    • 19% think it should be illegal in all cases.

Deciding about an Abortion

  • Abortion for many women and their partners is often an emotional decision filled with complexity.

    • Feelings can range from guilt and fear to a sense of empowerment, particularly in cases of fetal defects.

Involuntary Infertility and Reproductive Technology

  • Definition of Involuntary Infertility: The desire to conceive while being unable to do so, affecting 13% of women and 10% of men of childbearing age, with male infertility contributing to 50% of cases.

    • Factors like stress, obesity, and substance use have led to declining sperm counts.

    • Infertility generally causes more stress for women.

Infertility Services and Reproductive Technology

  • Treatments may include ovulation-inducing drugs, donor insemination, in vitro fertilization, and other similar techniques.

    • Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART): Any method manipulating eggs and/or sperm for pregnancy purposes, though it is financially burdensome for many.

Reproductive Technology: Social and Ethical Issues

  • Ethical concerns surrounding ART include:

    • Selection processes leading to potential inconsistencies in parenthood definitions (potential for more than two parents).

    • Economic accessibility: ART is often not affordable for lower-income individuals.

    • Potential innovatory problems: Potential to create children having specific desired traits, commercialization issues surrounding reproduction.

Adoption

  • There are approximately 1.5 million U.S. children with at least one adoptive parent (about 7% of all children).

    • Adoption trends reveal that more girls than boys are adopted, predominantly into married households.

    • Adoption can be costly, with most adoptive parents being older, educated, and financially stable.

    • Kinship adoptions (50% of adoptions) involve adopting by a biological relative or stepparent.

The Adoption Process

  • Public adoptions: Account for 92% of adoptions, occurring through licensed agencies.

    • Private adoptions: arranged between adoptive parents and the birth mother, often involving legal representation.

    • An increasing number of adoptions are open, facilitating communication and knowledge between birth and adoptive families.

Transracial Adoption

  • While adoptive parents tend to be predominantly white (77%), there’s an increasing rate of transracial adoptions.

    • Studies indicate no significant differences in adjustment issues for transracial versus in-race adoptees; adjustment issues encountered often stem from racial challenges.

Adoption of Older Children and Children with Disabilities

  • Approximately 15% of all adopted children have disabilities, a higher percentage than biological children.

    • The majority of such adoptions are successful, with only about 2% facing dissolution or disruption post-adoption.

International Adoptions

  • About 20% of adopted children are foreign-born.

    • Ensuring the biological mother's consent is crucial for ethical international adoptions.

    • Those pursuing international adoption often face similar challenges as with the adoption of older children, yet typically adopt healthy infants with shorter waiting periods.