Notes on U.S. Imperialism and Foreign Policy (17th Century Onwards)

To understand the complexities and debates surrounding U.S. imperialism, particularly following its expansionist policies in the aftermath of the Civil War.

Initially, U.S. foreign policy was centered around westward expansion, which was perceived as a form of manifest destiny. This ideology justified the territorial expansion and was rooted in the belief that Americans were destined to spread democracy and capitalism across the continent.
After the Civil War, the focus shifted toward overseas imperialism as the nation grappled with the implications of its growing industrial capabilities, particularly the need for new markets due to mass production and overproduction of goods.
This led to intense debates about whether the U.S. should continue following its anti-colonial traditions rooted in the Revolutionary War or embrace a new imperialist identity, raising questions about national identity and morality in foreign affairs.

William H. Seward: Serving as Secretary of State from 1861 to 1869, Seward was a pivotal figure in advocating for U.S. expansionism. Important actions included:
- Annexation of Midway Island in 1867, which served as a strategic coaling station for U.S. ships, facilitating naval operations in the Pacific.
- The Purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867, often called "Seward's Folly" at the time due to skepticism regarding its value. Seward's vision was later validated with seismic discoveries of gold in 1896 and oil in the 20th century, showcasing Alaska's strategic importance and natural resources.
- Attempts to annex Hawaii and the Danish West Indies, which highlighted the complexities of U.S. expansionism and the challenges posed by local governance and international pressures.

Background: Russia, in need of financial relief and fearing British imperial encroachment, was open to selling Alaska. Seward viewed the acquisition as a strategic necessity to enhance U.S. influence in the Arctic and the Pacific.
Public Perception: Initially met with derision, the purchase was termed "Seward's Folly". However, discoveries of gold, oil, and natural gas in Alaska transformed its perceived value, contributing significantly to the U.S. economy and military positioning by providing resources and establishing U.S. presence in the Pacific.

U.S. involvement in Hawaii began with missionaries and businessmen establishing plantations in the mid-1800s, significantly impacting the local economy and governance, leading to the dominance of American interests over local autonomy.
Treaty of 1875: This treaty provided the U.S. with tariff-free access to Hawaiian sugar, further entrenching U.S. influence and paving the way for future political interventions, such as the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. The forced annexation of Hawaii in 1898 demonstrated America's imperialist ambitions in the region and its disregard for the sovereignty of other nations.

The post-Civil War industrial boom resulted in a critical demand for new markets, evidenced by the pursuit of trade routes and colonies to support American industries and consumption.
Farmers also pushed for access to foreign markets for surplus crops, particularly as the U.S. experienced agricultural overproduction during this era, amplifying the desire for foreign territories to secure stable export opportunities and prevent domestic price drops.

Alfred Thayer Mahan: A prominent naval strategist whose works, particularly "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" (1890), emphasized the necessity for a strong navy to protect American interests and foreign trade. His ideas advocated for the establishment of coaling stations and naval bases, influencing U.S. naval expansion and military engagements in the Pacific and Caribbean, shaping America's global military strategy.

Economic and social unrest in the post-Civil War U.S. created anxieties regarding overpopulation and unrest; many viewed imperialism as a potential solution to these issues, leading to the belief that surplus populations could be exported abroad.
The concepts of Manifest Destiny were extended to justify international expansion, with proponents often invoking social Darwinism—the idea that the U.S. had a duty to civilize and uplift "lesser-developed" nations, framing imperialism within a narrative of altruism and racial superiority.

Opposition arose from various sectors advocating for non-involvement and emphasizing self-determination. Notable groups included the Anti-Imperialist League, which attracted a diverse coalition of dissenters, including intellectuals, politicians, and labor leaders.
Influential figures such as William Jennings Bryan articulated moral objections to U.S. imperialism, portraying it as contradictory to American democratic principles and arguing it undermined the nation's commitment to self-governance and freedom.

Following the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted U.S. interests in Latin America, the U.S. aimed to counteract European colonial influences. This was part of a broader strategy to solidify its role as a dominant regional power and limit European intervention.
The Pan-American Conference of 1889 emerged as a vital platform for establishing cooperative policies among American nations, reflecting both economic ambitions and diplomatic interests, as well as promoting solidarity and cultural exchange in the Americas.

Triggered by a combination of events in Cuba, rampant jingoism, and economic interests among American investors in Cuba, the war marked a key turning point in U.S. foreign policy and expansionism.
Key incidents, such as the mysterious sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor and the sensationalist reporting from yellow journalism—especially by publishers like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer—played significant roles in rallying public support for military intervention.
The conclusion of the conflict, which resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1898), saw the U.S. acquire Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marking a substantial expansion of American territorial holdings and influence on the global stage, thus signaling the emergence of the U.S. as a global imperial power.