Tsarist Russia and the 1917 Revolution: The Collapse of Autocracy and the Rise of Bolshevik Power

The Establishment of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet

• On $2^{\text{nd}}$ March $1917$, a Provisional Government (PG) was established following the collapse of the Tsarist autocracy. This body was primarily composed of leading figures from various liberal parties.

• The government was dominated by the Kadet party and its leader, Milyukov, who served as Foreign Minister.

• Key leadership figures included:

  • Prime Minister: Prince G.E. Lvov, who was the head of the union of zemstvo and had been recognized for his work providing medical support and aid to soldiers at the Front.

  • Minister of Justice: Alexander Kerensky, who was the sole socialist minister in the original lineup.

• Objective of the Provisional Government:

  • Its primary function was to govern Russia temporarily until elections for a Constituent Assembly could be held.

  • The Assembly was intended to establish a formal legal and governmental framework for Russia’s future.

• Legitimacy Issues:

  • The Provisional Government was not an elected body; it originated as a rebellious committee of the old Duma that had refused the Tsar's order to disband.

  • Consequently, it lacked constitutional authority and had no inherent loyalty from the Russian people. Its survival depended entirely on its ability to address the nation's immediate crises.

The Petrograd Soviet and the Reality of Dual Authority

• The Petrograd Soviet was formed on Monday, $27^{\text{th}}$ February $1917$, likely as an initiative by Menshevik intellectuals. It became the central focus for working-class political aspirations.

• Factories elected delegates to attend the full meeting of the Soviet, which then chose an Executive Committee dominated by Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries (SRs).

• Role of the Soviet:

  • Initially, it did not seek to be a government. It viewed itself as a supervisory body ensuring the interests of workers and soldiers were protected by the new administration.

  • However, the PG’s lack of confidence in its own authority often gave the Soviet greater prominence. Soviets soon formed in most major cities, though they were not necessarily anti-government at this stage.

• Soviet Order Number 1:

  • This was a critical decree issued by the Petrograd Soviet which stated that military decrees from the Provisional Government were binding only if they were approved by the Soviet.

  • This order effectively stripped the PG of control over the army, as it gave soldiers representation and placed control of weapons in the hands of soldier committees.

• Dual Authority (Dvoyevlastiye):

  • This term describes the compromise where power was split between the PG and the Soviet.

  • The Soviet did not demand land redistribution or state control of industry immediately.

  • In exchange, the PG granted:

    1. Complete amnesty for political, religious, or military/terrorist crimes.

    2. Freedom of the press and speech.

    3. Civil liberties for soldiers identical to those of civilians.

    4. Permission for the St. Petersburg garrison to retain weapons and remain in the city.

• The operation of this dual system was initially aided by a collective sense of euphoria and the shared goal of preventing a slip into anarchy.

The Honeymoon of the Revolution and Initial Reforms

• During the first two months, the PG and the Soviet functioned cooperatively. The first measures taken gained public and Soviet approval:

  • Tsarist ministers were arrested.

  • The secret police were disbanded.

  • The death penalty was abolished.

  • Amnesty was granted to political and religious prisoners.

  • The PG promised universal suffrage and secret ballots for the Constituent Assembly elections.

• Leading figures of this period included:

  • Prince Georgii Lvov: Prime Minister (Aristocratic landowner, former Kadet).

  • Pavel Miliukov: Foreign Affairs (Kadet leader).

  • Alexander Guchkov: Minister of War (Octobrist, capitalist).

  • Alexander Kerensky: Minister of Justice (SR, later Prime Minister).

The Failure of Dual Authority

• Conflicts between radicals and liberals were inevitable. Order No. 1 created constant friction regarding army discipline.

• The War Issue:

  • The PG wanted to continue the war effort to victory, while the masses demanded an end to wartime deprivation.

  • In April $1917$, Milyukov announced the government would continue fighting for a "just peace," triggering mass anti-war demonstrations. Both Milyukov and Guchkov were forced to resign.

  • The June Offensive: A military attack that proved to be a dismal failure, leading to mass desertions and further instability.

• Cabinet Changes:

  • Socialists were added to the PG to bolster support: Chernov became Minister of Agriculture, and Kerensky became Minister of War. Two Mensheviks also joined.

  • In July $1917$, Prince Lvov resigned, and Kerensky became Chairman (Prime Minister). This shift toward socialism alarmed the upper classes.

Economic Deterioration and the July Days

• The economic crises of the Tsar’s reign persisted. Food prices rose, and fuel and food shortages became severe in the cities.

• Inflation stats:

  • By January $1917$, prices were $300\%$ of the $1914$ level.

  • By October $1917$, prices had risen to $755\%$ of the $1914$ level.

• The July Days:

  • A period of uncontrolled rioting from $3^{\text{rd}}$ to $5^{\text{th}}$ July sparked by economic frustration.

  • $20,000$ armed sailors from Kronstadt joined workers and soldiers on the streets of Petrograd chanting "All Power to the Soviets."

  • The PG blamed the Bolsheviks for the unrest. Warrants were issued for leaders; Trotsky was jailed, and Lenin fled to Finland.

  • The government closed the Bolshevik paper Pravda and denounced Lenin as a German agent.

The Kornilov Affair

• The upper classes, desperate for order, supported General Kornilov, the new Commander-in-Chief.

• Kornilov ordered six regiments to Petrograd to crush the Soviet and potentially seize power.

• Kerensky, fearing a military coup, panicked and released imprisoned Bolsheviks, arming the Soviet and workers to defend the capital.

• The coup failed, but the damage was irreparable:

  • The PG was discredited for its reliance on the Bolsheviks.

  • The Bolsheviks emerged as the "saviors of the revolution," with their Red Guards (trained in secret) now armed and organized.

The Return of Lenin and the April Theses

• Lenin returned from Switzerland in April $1917$ via a "sealed carriage" provided by Germany, who hoped he would destabilize the Russian war effort.

• Initial Reception:

  • The Bolsheviks were a minority with little influence. Chkeidze, the Menshevik chairman, told Lenin he was not needed.

• The April Theses:

  • Lenin demanded an immediate end to the war, an end to cooperation with the PG, power for the Soviets, and land for peasants.

  • He summarized his program with the slogans: "Bread, Peace and Land" and "All Power to the Soviets."

  • Justification: Lenin argued the bourgeoisie were too weak to lead a revolution and that Russia was the "weakest link" in the capitalist chain. He believed a Russian revolution would trigger a worldwide socialist uprising.

  • Though initially greeted with boos and skepticism from both Mensheviks and some Bolsheviks, Lenin’s personality won over the Bolshevik Central Committee by the end of April.

Bolshevik Growth and Rise to Power

• Growth Statistics:

  • Membership: $23,000$ in February to $200,000$ by October.

  • Propaganda: $41$ newspapers and a force of $10,000$ Red Guards in the capital.

  • Electoral Support: In Moscow Duma elections, Bolshevik support increased by $164\%$ between June and December.

• By September, the Bolsheviks held majorities in the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets. Trotsky was elected Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet on $21^{\text{st}}$ September.

• The Shift to Uprising:

  • From Finland, Lenin urged the 12-man Central Committee to seize power.

  • Zinoviev and Kamenev opposed an immediate coup, fearing Russia was unready, and even burned some of Lenin's letters. Trotsky suggested waiting for the Second Congress of Soviets on $26^{\text{th}}$ October.

The October Revolution of 1917

• Timeline:

  • $7^{\text{th}}$ October: Lenin secretly returned to Petrograd.

  • $9^{\text{th}}$ October: Trotsky established the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) to defend Petrograd against the Germans and PG. It controlled $200,000$ Red Guards, $60,000$ sailors, and $150,000$ soldiers.

  • $10^{\text{th}}$ October: Lenin persuaded the party to commit to an armed uprising. Zinoviev and Kamenev publicly dissented in the press.

  • $24^{\text{th}}$ October: During the night, $5,000$ sailors and soldiers took over key points: railways, power stations, banks, and post offices.

  • $25^{\text{th}}$ October: The Winter Palace was surrounded. Kerensky escaped in a car from the US Embassy to seek loyal troops. The rest of the PG was arrested after a brief standoff.

• The Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars):

  • Established on $26^{\text{th}}$ October, headed by Lenin. Initially composed of Bolsheviks and Left SRs.

  • Lenin immediately issued the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land.

Why the Provisional Government Fell

• Internal Weaknesses:

  • Lack of real power (held by the Soviet).

  • Self-perception as temporary, delaying key decisions like land reform and elections.

  • Internal divisions between liberals and socialists.

• Specific Failures:

  • Continuance of Great War and the failed June Offensive.

  • Alienation of peasants by refusing to legitimize land seizures.

  • Alienation of national minorities by refusing autonomy.

  • Alienation of the military after the Kornilov affair betrayal.

• Bolshevik Factors:

  • Clear, radical policies that addressed mass demands (Peace, Land).

  • Strong leadership from Lenin and Trotsky’s organizational brilliance with the MRC.

  • High concentrations of support in the pivotal cities of Petrograd and Moscow.

Consolidating Bolshevik Power

• Establishment of the Sovnarkom:

  • Lenin chose to rule through this new body rather than the Soviet to avoid sharing power with Mensheviks or Mainstream SRs.

  • Power was initially fragile; civil servants struck, and the State Bank refused to hand over funds for $10$ days until forced by arms.

• Populist Decrees:

  • Land Decree: Allowed peasants to seize gentry land. This contradicted socialist ideals of state ownership but was necessary for support.

  • Workers’ Control Decree: Factory committees were given rights to supervise management.

  • Rights of the People of Russia: Promised self-determination to national minorities.

Dealing with Opposition and the Cheka

• The Bolsheviks moved quickly to crush dissent:

  • Closed opposition press (right, center, then socialist).

  • The Kadet Party was outlawed; leading Kadets were arrested or killed.

  • The Cheka was established in December $1917$ as a security force to combat counter-revolution.

• Class Warfare:

  • Lenin encouraged "looting the looters," allowing the plunder of middle-class homes.

  • The term "bourgeoisie" became a label for "enemies of the people."

  • Titles were abolished; "comrade" became the mandatory form of address.

• Civil Service Purge: Striking officials were arrested and replaced by obedient, though lower-quality, Bolshevik officials.

The Constituent Assembly and the End of the War

• The Constituent Assembly Election Results:

  • Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs): $410$ seats.

  • Bolsheviks: $145$ seats.

  • Despite the loss, Lenin declared the Assembly a "bourgeois parliamentary democracy" and redundant.

  • It met for only one day in January $1918$ before being forcibly dispersed by soldiers. Pro-Assembly demonstrators were fired upon.

• The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ($3^{\text{rd}}$ March $1918$):

  • Trotsky initially proposed "neither war nor peace," but German advances toward Petrograd forced Lenin’s hand.

  • The treaty was signed at a massive cost: large chunks of Russian territory were surrendered.

  • Consequences: Antagonized patriots across Russia, caused a split in the Bolshevik party (Bukharin wanted a revolutionary war), and led the Left SRs to resign from the Sovnarkom, leaving the Bolsheviks to rule alone.