Thinking and Problem-Solving

2.2 Thinking & Problem-Solving

Executive Functioning

  • Definition: A set of higher-level cognitive processes that involve mental capabilities necessary for complex problem-solving and adapting to various situations.

  • Major components include:

    • Planning

    • Organizing

    • Goal-oriented tasks

  • Location of processing: Primarily processed in the Prefrontal Cortex.

Types of Thinking

  • Creative & Non-Linear Thinking:

    • Exploring a wide array of potential solutions.

  • Logical Thinking:

    • Narrowing down options to derive a singular answer.

  • This leads to two key types of thinking:

    • Divergent Thinking: The process of generating multiple ideas or solutions.

    • Convergent Thinking: The process of focusing on finding a single, correct solution.

Acquiring New Information

  • Definition: The mental framework utilized to organize various forms of information including:

    • Knowledge

    • Beliefs

    • Concepts

    • Situations

  • Purpose: Enables quick processing of information, ultimately creating categories for simplifying understanding.

  • Example: A child forms a schema pertaining to farms.

Schema

  • Definition: A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.

  • Assimilation:

    • Fitting new information into an existing schema.

    • Example: Adding horses to a child's farm schema.

  • Accommodation:

    • Modifying an existing schema or creating a new schema when confronted with information that does not fit.

    • Example: Understanding that farms do not necessarily have animals.

Concepts & Prototypes

  • Definition: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas based on shared qualities.

  • Example: A category like "chair" may include a bench, high chair, beanbag, and recliner.

  • Mental Image:

    • A cognitive representation of a concept; the ideal version in our mind.

    • Example: A mental image of a kitchen chair.

  • New types of chairs are evaluated against this prototype.

Problem-Solving Strategies

  • Trial & Error:

    • Definition: A method where multiple possibilities are tried until a solution is found.

    • Example: Experimenting with different ingredient combinations in a recipe.

    • Advantages:

    • Promotes discovery.

    • Offers learning opportunities from mistakes.

    • Disadvantages:

    • Can be time-consuming.

    • Consumes resources.

    • Success is not guaranteed.

  • Heuristics:

    • Definition: A rule of thumb or guideline applied to solve problems, often quicker than step-by-step methods.

    • Example: Using a pinch of salt instead of measuring it precisely.

    • Advantages:

    • Quick solutions.

    • Reduces mental effort.

    • Disadvantages:

    • More prone to errors in judgment.

    • Might not yield the desired outcome.

    • Categories of heuristics:

    • Representativeness: Making judgments based on prototypes or stereotypes.

      • Example: Assuming a woman who works with groups is a teacher or nurse.

    • Availability: Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

      • Example: Overestimating risk after hearing about a plane crash.

  • Algorithm:

    • Definition: A set of precise, step-by-step instructions for solving a problem.

    • Example: Following a recipe for cooking.

    • Advantages:

    • Produces precise solutions.

    • Yields reliable and consistent outcomes.

    • Disadvantages:

    • Can be time-consuming.

    • Requires essential resources.

Influences on Decision-Making

  • Priming:

    • Definition: The process by which exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus.

    • Activates associations in our memory.

    • Affects thought processes and information handling.

  • Framing:

    • Definition: The concept that decisions and judgments are significantly influenced by the presentation of information.

    • Example:

    • Describing a treatment as "90% effective" versus "10% ineffective."

  • Mental Set:

    • Definition: A tendency to approach problems in a specific way, often based on previous successes.

    • Implication: This can limit the consideration of potentially better solutions.

    • Examples:

    • Series recognition: O T T F __ __ __ (Five, Six, Seven)

    • Series recognition: J F M A __ __ __ M J J (May, June, July)

Cognitive Fallacies

  • Gambler's Fallacy:

    • Definition: Believing that previous random events can influence the outcome of future random events.

    • Example: After flipping heads five times, one wrongly assumes the next flip will be tails.

    • Further example: A couple with three boys believes they are "due" for a girl.

  • Sunk-Cost Fallacy:

    • Definition: Continuation of a task based on previously invested resources (time, money, effort).

    • Implications: This can lead to persisting with poor decisions.

    • Examples:

    • Watching a boring movie to the end despite disliking it.

    • Remaining in a relationship solely because of the time already spent together.

Creativity

  • Creativity:

    • Definition: The capacity to generate new ideas and novel ways of thinking.

    • Example: Sharing one’s artistic drawings with peers.

  • Functional Fixedness:

    • Definition: The tendency to view objects solely in terms of their intended or traditional use.

    • Implications: This restricts creativity and hinders creative problem-solving as well as divergent thinking.