Midterm

Definition of Learning A lasting change in behavior (or potential behavior) that comes from experience (e.g., typing faster after practice).

Learning vs. Temporary Changes Temporary changes are short-term dips or spikes caused by fatigue, mood, or motivation, which fade quickly unlike true learning.

Learning vs. Reflexes Reflexes are automatic, inborn physical reactions hardwired from birth (like knee jerks), not learned habits.

Learning vs. Drug Effects Drug effects are short-term chemical alterations in the body (like slurred speech from alcohol) that vanish once the substance leaves.

Learning vs. Illness Illness is a physical disruption or sickness (like being bedridden with the flu), not a change driven by experience.

Empiricism vs. Nativism Empiricism = Nurture (knowledge comes from sensory experience); Nativism = Nature (knowledge and traits are inborn/biological).

Aristotle's Law of Contiguity Ideas or events that happen close together in time or space become linked (e.g., seeing lightning and expecting thunder).

Aristotle's Law of Similarity Events or objects that look or function alike become linked (e.g., grouping cars and trucks together).

Aristotle's Law of Contrast Events or qualities that are total opposites easily trigger each other in thought (e.g., hearing "black" and thinking "white").

Structuralism vs. Functionalism Structuralism (Titchener) studied the basic elements of consciousness using introspection; Functionalism (James) studied the adaptive purpose and survival function of the mind.

Darwin's Natural Selection & Behavior Organisms vary, useful traits help survival/reproduction, and these traits get passed down—proving that behaviors serve an adaptive survival function.

Methodological Behaviorism (Watson) Studying ONLY directly visible actions and the environment; completely bans internal thoughts and feelings from science.

Cognitive Behaviorism (Tolman) Analyzes goal-directed behavior using mental intervening variables like expectations, cognitive maps, and latent learning.

Cognitive Map A mental layout or spatial picture of one's physical environment (e.g., a rat knowing the layout of a maze).

Latent Learning (Tolman & Honzik) Learning that takes place without any reward and stays hidden until an incentive is introduced to show it off.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Learning occurs through social observation, modeling, and imitating others, with internal thoughts playing an active causal role.

Reciprocal Determinism Your thoughts, your actions, and your environment all bounce off and influence each other.

Radical Behaviorism (Skinner) Environmental consequences drive voluntary actions; thoughts and feelings are private behaviors caused by the environment, not causes themselves.

The 5 Behaviorists & Their Schools Watson = Methodological; Hull = Neobehaviorism; Tolman = Cognitive; Bandura = Social Learning; Skinner = Radical.

Independent Variable (IV) The variable that the researcher directly changes or manipulates (e.g., number of practice trials given).

Dependent Variable (DV) The outcome or behavior measured to see if the IV made any difference (e.g., test score performance).

Functional Relationship A proven cause-and-effect link where systematic changes in the IV reliably cause changes in the DV.

Overt Behavior vs. Covert Behavior Overt = public behavior anyone can see (speaking, walking); Covert = private behavior inside the skin (thinking, feeling nervous).

Appetitive vs. Aversive Stimuli Appetitive = pleasant events an organism approaches/wants (food, praise); Aversive = unpleasant events an organism avoids (pain, shock).

Good Behavioral Definition Must be objective, observable, specific, and measurable (e.g., "left seat 3 times in 30 minutes" instead of "was disruptive").

Frequency / Count vs. Duration vs. Latency Frequency = how many times it happened; Duration = how long it lasted; Latency = how long before it started after a cue.

Interobserver Reliability (IOA) The percentage of agreement between two independent observers watching the same behavior (80% is acceptable, 90% is preferred).

Descriptive Research vs. Experimental Research Descriptive = observing and describing behavior without manipulation (cannot prove cause); Experimental = manipulating IVs to prove cause-and-effect.

Reflex A simple, automatic, involuntary response to a specific stimulus (e.g., blinking, knee jerk, salivating to food).

Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) A built-in, species-typical sequence of actions triggered by a sign stimulus (e.g., a male stickleback fish attacking a red belly).

Habituation vs. Sensitization Habituation = response decreases after repeated exposure to a harmless cue; Sensitization = response increases after a scary/intense cue.

Appetitive vs. Aversive Conditioning Appetitive = pairing a cue with a pleasant US (Tone + Food -> Drool); Aversive = pairing a cue with an unpleasant US (Tone + Shock -> Fear).

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Conditioning Excitatory = cue predicts the US WILL arrive; Inhibitory = cue predicts the US will NOT arrive (a safety signal).

Temporal Factors in Conditioning Delayed conditioning (cue starts first and overlaps slightly with US) produces the strongest learning, while backward produces little to none.

Pseudoconditioning A fake conditioned response caused by general jumpiness or sensitization from a prior shock, not true associative learning.

Acquisition The initial learning period where a neutral cue is repeatedly paired with a US until the conditioned response develops.

Extinction in Classical Conditioning Repeatedly presenting the CS without the US, causing the conditioned response to gradually fade away (new learning, not erasure).

Spontaneous Recovery The temporary sudden return of an extinguished conditioned response following a rest delay.

Stimulus Generalization vs. Discrimination Generalization = reacting to cues that resemble the CS (fearing all dogs); Discrimination = reacting ONLY to the exact trained cue.

Higher-Order Conditioning An established CS1 is used to train a new neutral CS2 without ever using the original US (e.g., Song -> Joy, then Logo + Song -> Joy).

US Revaluation Changing how much the subject values or fears the US after training, which changes how strongly they react to the CS.

Blocking Prior learning to Cue A blocks Cue B from being learned when they are presented together, because Cue B gives zero new information.

Overshadowing When two cues of unequal salience are presented together, the louder or brighter cue steals all the learning.

Stimulus-Substitution Theory (Pavlov) The CS connects to reflex centers in the brain, becoming a direct psychological stand-in or substitute for the US.

S-S Learning vs. S-R Learning S-S = learning a predictive connection between two stimuli (CS -> US); S-R = learning a direct link between a cue and an action.

Preparatory-Response Theory The CR is an adaptive response designed to prepare the body for the upcoming US (e.g., freezing before a shock).

Compensatory-Response Model (Siegel) The body learns a defensive CR opposite to the drug's effect to protect balance; explains tolerance, withdrawal, and room-shift overdoses.

Rescorla-Wagner Theory & Prediction Error Learning is powered by surprise (prediction error); if an outcome is fully expected, zero new learning happens.

Systematic Desensitization vs. Flooding Desensitization = slowly climbing a fear hierarchy using relaxation; Flooding = immediate, sustained exposure to maximum fear until panic ends.

Conditioned Taste Aversion Developing an intense disgust for a food paired with nausea; happens in one trial even across long delays due to biological survival wiring.

Thorndike's Law of Effect Actions followed by satisfying consequences get stamped in (repeated); actions followed by annoying consequences get stamped out.

Skinner's Selection by Consequences Behaviors naturally vary, and the environment selects and maintains the ones that produce reinforcing outcomes.

Operant Behavior vs. Reflex Operant behavior is emitted and shaped by consequences; a reflex is an automatic physical reaction elicited by an antecedent cue.

The Three-Term Contingency SD (Antecedent cue) -> Behavior (Action emitted) -> Consequence (Outcome produced).

Positive vs. Negative (Operant Conditioning) Positive = a stimulus is ADDED (+); Negative = a stimulus is REMOVED (-).

Reinforcement vs. Punishment Reinforcement = future behavior INCREASES; Punishment = future behavior DECREASES.

Positive Reinforcement (PR) Adding a pleasant stimulus following an action, causing future behavior to INCREASE (e.g., earning a bonus for hard work).

Negative Reinforcement (NR) Removing an unpleasant stimulus following an action, causing future behavior to INCREASE (e.g., buckling up to stop a buzzer; RELIEF).

Positive Punishment (PP) Adding an unpleasant stimulus following an action, causing future behavior to DECREASE (e.g., getting a reprimand or speeding ticket).

Negative Punishment (NP) Removing a pleasant stimulus following an action, causing future behavior to DECREASE (e.g., losing phone privileges for breaking curfew).

Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement Immediate rewards reinforce the exact behavior just performed; delayed rewards have weaker control and allow other behaviors to slip in.

Primary vs. Conditioned Reinforcers Primary = unlearned biological necessities (food, water); Conditioned = learned rewards paired with other reinforcers (grades, praise).

Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer A learned reward paired with many different primary reinforcers, making it effective in almost any state (e.g., money).

Shaping Teaching a new, difficult behavior by reinforcing small successive steps (approximations) toward the final goal.

Continuous (CRF) vs. Intermittent Reinforcement Continuous = rewarding every single correct response (best for initial teaching); Intermittent = rewarding only some responses (builds strong resistance to quitting).

Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement after a set, predictable number of responses; shows fast work and a pause right after reward (e.g., FR 10).

Variable Ratio (VR) Reinforcement after an unpredictable, average number of responses; produces very fast, steady work with no pauses (e.g., slot machines).

Fixed Interval (FI) First response after a set amount of time passes is rewarded; produces a post-reinforcement pause and a scalloped curve (e.g., studying right before a weekly test).

Variable Interval (VI) First response after an unpredictable, average amount of time passes is rewarded; produces steady, calm responding (e.g., checking email).

Superstitious Behavior A behavior repeated because a free reward happened to drop coincidentally right after it occurred.

Conjunctive Schedule Two or more schedule requirements must all be completed before reinforcement is delivered (Think: "AND").

Chained Schedule A sequence of separate schedules completed in strict order, with each link having its own cue and reward delivered only at the very end.

Multiple Schedule Two or more alternating schedules with distinct cues, where each schedule delivers its own reward upon completion.

Concurrent Schedule Two or more schedules running at the exact same time, allowing the individual to choose which one to respond to.

Drive Reduction Theory (Hull) The idea that rewards work because they reduce an internal physical drive (like hunger); fails to explain video games or non-nutritive sweets.

Premack Principle ("Grandma's Rule") A high-probability behavior can reinforce a low-probability behavior ("Eat your vegetables, then you can play video games").

Response Deprivation Hypothesis Restricting access to ANY activity below its normal baseline makes that activity reinforcing.

Behavioral Bliss Point Approach Organisms naturally distribute their activities to reach an optimal daily balance of comfort; contingencies force a compromise as close to that point as possible.