Zande Witchcraft: Explaining Unfortunate Events
The Notion of Witchcraft in Zande Culture
Ubiquitous Nature of Witchcraft:
Witchcraft (as understood by the Azande) is not a rare event but an integral part of nearly every aspect of Zande life.
It offers a "natural philosophy" to explain the relationship between individuals and unfortunate events.
It provides a structured way of reacting to misfortunes.
It regulates human conduct through its system of values.
Its influence is evident in agriculture, fishing, hunting, domestic and communal life, legal and moral systems, etiquette, religion, technology, and language.
Examples of misfortunes attributed to witchcraft:
Blight seizing ground-nut crops.
Unsuccessful game hunting.
Poor fishing yields after significant effort.
Termites not emerging for collection.
A wife being sulky.
A prince being cold to a subject.
Failure of magical rites.
Generally, any failure or misfortune, unless strong evidence (and oracle confirmation) points to sorcery, incompetence, breach of taboo, or failure to observe a moral rule.
Perspective Shift: To Azande, attributing crop failure to witchcraft is similar to a Westerner saying a crop failed due to blight or someone caught influenza. Witchcraft is the "idiom" through which Azande discuss and explain misfortunes.
Zande vs. Western Perception of Witchcraft:
Western View: Witchcraft is seen as something that "haunted and disgusted our credulous forefathers," often associated with the miraculous, supernatural, or eerie.
Zande View: Witchcraft is an ordinary, anticipated part of daily life; a Zande expects to encounter it constantly. There is "nothing miraculous" or "awe-inspiring" about it.
It is not less anticipated than adultery.
A Zande's reaction to being bewitched is typically anger and annoyance, not awe or terror, because it signifies someone's spiteful interference.
Being surprised by its absence would be more unusual than its presence.
Witches are common, even among neighbors.
Illness is expected to be a result of bewitchment, not a cause for surprise or wonder.
Anthropologist's Experience: The author initially found Zande explanations naive but eventually learned to apply witchcraft notions spontaneously within relevant contexts, understanding their "idiom of thought."
Witchcraft Explains Specific Conditions and Coincidence, Not Existence:
Azande do not use witchcraft to explain the existence of phenomena or their general actions.
Example 1: Boy and Stump:
The boy knew the stump grew naturally and caused the cut.
He attributed to witchcraft why he, despite his usual carefulness, specifically knocked his foot against this stump at this time (when he usually avoids them).
He also attributed to witchcraft why this particular cut festered and remained open, unlike most cuts which heal quickly.
His argument: If he hadn't been bewitched, he would have seen the stump, as he carefully watches for them.
Example 2: Burnt Hut:
The man knew he accidentally ignited the thatch by lighting a straw bundle.
He, and others, attributed to witchcraft why this particular man, on this single occasion, ignited the thatch, despite hundreds of Azande inspecting beer similarly by night without incident.
Example 3: Wood Carver:
The skilled carver, Kisanga, knew all technical rules and selected hard woods.
He attributed to witchcraft why his bowls and stools, which normally did not split, did so on rare occasions, believing his neighbors' spite and jealousy were responsible.
Example 4: Potter:
An experienced potter follows all rules (clay selection, kneading, building, abstaining from sexual intercourse before digging clay).
He attributes the cracking of pots during firing to witchcraft, stating simply, "It is broken, there is witchcraft."
He knows the technical reasons for cracking, but witchcraft explains why it happened on this specific occasion despite his expertise.
Witchcraft and Natural Causation - The Granary Metaphor:
Zande philosophy does not claim witchcraft is the sole cause of phenomena.
They acknowledge natural causation fully: termites eat granary supports, causing collapse; people sit under granaries for shade.
Witchcraft explains the interception or coincidence of two independent chains of causation at a particular moment in time and space leading to injury.
E.g., Granary Collapse: It is intelligible that a granary collapses due to termites. It is intelligible that people sit under it for shade. Witchcraft explains why these specific people were sitting under this specific granary at the precise moment it collapsed.
"If there had been no witchcraft people would have been sitting under the granary and it would not have fallen on them, or it would have collapsed but the people would not have been sheltering under it at the time."
The "Second Spear" Metaphor:
Azande clearly separate natural and mystical causation by defining their relationship with a hunting metaphor: witchcraft is the "umbaga" (second spear).
When an animal is killed, meat is divided between the first and second spear-bearers.
Application to Misfortune:
If a man is killed by an elephant, the elephant is the "first spear" (natural cause), and witchcraft is the "second spear" (mystical cause); together, they killed the man.
If a man is killed by a spear in war, the slayer is the "first spear," and witchcraft is the "second spear."
This shows that Zande belief in witchcraft does not contradict empirical knowledge of cause and effect but supplements it, accounting for what natural causes do not: the specific, harmful event for a particular individual.
Witchcraft is the socially relevant cause because it allows for intervention and determines social behavior (e.g., revenge).
Witchcraft's Role in Explaining "Why" vs. "How":
Zande belief in witchcraft is consistent with human responsibility and a rational appreciation of nature.
A Zande perceives how events happen in the same way as Europeans: an elephant charges, termites gnaw supports, a straw bundle ignites thatch.
Witchcraft explains why events are harmful to a specific person, not how they physically occur.
They are "foreshortening the chain of events," selecting the "socially relevant" cause.
Death is not only a natural event but also a social one, leading to oracle consultations, magic rites, and revenge, with witchcraft being the significant cause for social action.
Limitations of Witchcraft Explanations (Situations Where it is NOT Invoked):
Personal Violations & Moral/Legal Responsibilities:
Witchcraft does not explain lies, adultery, theft, or disloyalty to a prince. Zande doctrine explicitly states: "Witchcraft does not make a person tell lies"; "Witchcraft does not make a person commit adultery"; etc.
A person found guilty of such acts cannot plead bewitchment to escape punishment.
Murder: If a man murders another tribesman, there is no need to seek a witch; the slayer is the direct target for vengeance. If the victim was from another tribe, then a witch might be sought by the victim's kin/prince.
King's Orders/Justice: If a man is executed by order of the king for an offense, it would be treason to attribute his death to witchcraft. Consulting oracles for a witch in such a case would put the individual at risk.
If a person is killed as a convicted witch by avengers, their death is attributed to their being a homicide, not to witchcraft.
Breach of Taboo:
Witchcraft is not indicated as a cause of failure if a taboo has been broken.
Example 1: Sick Child: If a child becomes sick/dies and parents had sexual relations before weaning, the cause is the breach of taboo, not witchcraft.
Example 2: Leprosy: If a man develops leprosy and has a history of incest, incest is the cause.
"Second Spear" in Taboo Cases: In cases of illness/death due to taboo (e.g., child's fever, man's leprosy), the illness itself is a natural fact. The breach of taboo caused the sickness, but witchcraft acted as the "second spear," ensuring death. Without witchcraft, they would have gotten sick but not necessarily died.
Failed Magic/Oracle: If a man eats forbidden food after making punitive magic, the medicine will fail due to the taboo breach, not witchcraft. If he approaches the poison oracle after sexual intercourse, its failure to reveal truth is attributed to the taboo, not witchcraft.
Incompetence, Laziness, Ignorance:
For minor failures, incompetence, laziness, or ignorance can be identified as causes.
Examples: A girl smashing a water-pot, a boy forgetting to close a hen-house door, burning porridge, an inexperienced craftsman making a faulty stool.
While the suffering individual might still attribute it to witchcraft, others (especially in the community) would likely attribute it to direct causes.
Azande are not naive; they recognize a pebble in clay as the cause of a pot cracking or someone frightening an animal as the cause of it escaping, not witchcraft.
Specific Deaths Not Always Witchcraft:
Deaths of babies from certain diseases are vaguely attributed to the Supreme Being.
Sudden, violent sickness and death may be attributed to sorcery (magic against him), not witchcraft.
Breach of blood-brotherhood obligations can cause related deaths; attributed to "blood," not witchcraft, by outsiders.
Very old men dying are attributed to "old age" by unrelated people (though kinsmen might still blame witchcraft).
Adultery is a participating factor in misfortunes (e.g., a man killed in war/hunting due to his wife's infidelities), but witchcraft is also believed to be present.
Zande Understanding and Response to Witchcraft:
Experience over Analysis: Azande understand witchcraft through feelings and actions rather than elaborate intellectual theories. Their response is "action and not analysis."
They have no abstract concept of "natural" or "supernatural" as Europeans do. Witchcraft is ordinary, a normal happening.
They do distinguish between what observers call "natural workings" and "mystical workings" (magic, ghosts, witchcraft), but lack a formulated doctrine of natural law to express this difference abstractly.
They admit not understanding how witchcraft works precisely, only that it exists and does evil (e.g., "the soul of witchcraft goes by night and devours the soul of its victim").
Their ideas are "imprisoned in action" and are not abstract doctrines used to explain and justify action academically.
Dealing with Witchcraft:
Retaliation & Compensation: Vengeance or compensation can only be exacted for death caused by witchcraft.
Lesser Losses: For non-fatal misfortunes, the goal is to identify the witch and persuade them to withdraw their malevolent influence.
Irreparable Loss: If the misfortune is completed and cannot be undone (e.g., ground-nuts ruined), identifying the witch is seen as useless. No compensation can be obtained, and the witch cannot undo damage already done. The sufferer generally laments "witchcraft in general."
Incipient Misfortunes: Identification of the witch is crucial when a misfortune is incipient (still developing), as persuasion can lead to the withdrawal of witchcraft and prevent a serious outcome.
Examples: Discovering witches during the hunting season can improve the bag; consulting oracles for a serious, prolonged sickness to determine the cause and influence withdrawal.
If a poisonous snake bite results in quick recovery, identifying the witch is pointless; if it leads to death, then action is taken.