Social 10 Issue 2

Chapter 5

The Indo-Arabic Number System

The establishment of a universal numbering system was closely linked to globalization and increased trade. Previously, different number systems were used for counting, measuring, and calculating the value of goods. This variety posed a problem for countries engaging in international trade.

🗓 Historical Context of Globalization

Globalization can be divided into distinct phases:

• Silk Road Globalization (325 BCE - 1400 CE)

  • Key players: Arab traders, Genghis Khan (Mongols), Maurya (India), China to Europe

• Historical Globalization (1492 - WWII, 1945)

  • Marked by Christopher Columbus, the Age of Exploration, and European Imperialism

• Modern Globalization (WWII, 1945 - Present)

  • Also known as "Contemporary Globalization"

  • Characterized by the rise of the US, globalized markets, and the rise of China and India, with a focus on economic globalization

How Ideas Spread

The exchange of goods and ideas occurred through ancient trade routes. For example, Arab civilizations transferred knowledge of Indian science, mathematics, and literature to Europe.

The Silk Road

Travel along the Silk Road facilitated the exchange of:

• Goods (spices, silks, salt, porcelain) from Asia to Europe (Italian City-States)

• Ideas

• The Silk Road was crucial because it:

  • Set the foundation for globalization.

  • Spread ideas.

  • Shaped the modern economy.

  • Improved agricultural diversity.

  • Lessened scarcity of resources.

  • Connected people.

  • Improved belief systems.

  • Created demand for the improvement of globalization.

  • Led to medical advancements.

🚧 Problems of the First Round of Globalization

The initial phase of globalization faced challenges:

• Land pirates (robbers)

• Limited cargo capacity of camels

• Camels were crucial for transporting goods along the Silk Road, but their limited cargo capacity and the threat of land pirates posed significant challenges to trade.

• Spread of disease

The Silk Road had a multifaceted impact:

🚢 Rise of Imperialism

The rise of imperialism in the 1400s led to globalization by European countries, driven by advancements in sailing technology. The caravel, a ship capable of carrying more cargo and considered faster and safer than land travel, spurred European imperialism.

Impact on People

Historical globalization brought about:

• Changes in class structure.

• A decline in confidence in the church.

• Famine, drought, and hunger.

• Reshaping of society.

• Rise of a middle class with power derived from trade, not land ownership.

• Significant population loss in Europe (approximately half the population died around 1347).

Changes in Europe After 1347

1. Gutenberg invented the printing press, leading to the rapid spread of ideas.

2. The rise of the middle class shifted wealth from nobility to merchants and tradespeople.

3. A rural-to-urban shift in population occurred.

4. Trade, not agriculture, became the driving force of the economy.

5. New ideas from across Eurasia were embraced.

6. New technologies were created based on foreign technologies, such as larger sails, medicines, and gunpowder.

🌍 The Columbian Exchange

When Columbus returned to the Americas, he initiated a trade revolution that led to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and diseases between Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

This exchange included fruit trees, seeds, and livestock and transformed societies worldwide.

⚔ Global Competition for Trade

European countries competed to establish colonial empires, extending their power by acquiring new territories and controlling other countries and their people. This competition fueled the rise of European Imperialism post-Columbus (after 1492).

Dividing the World

European powers, including British, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch, established large colonies by the late 1700s. Monarchs declared the people in their colonized lands as their subjects and enforced their laws and customs. Europeans believed their culture was superior (Eurocentrism) and encouraged emigration to these colonies.

• Portuguese Empire

• Dutch Empire

• British Empire

• French Empire

• Spanish Empire

Mercantilism

Mercantilism is an economic system where raw materials were extracted from colonies and shipped to the home country to create artisan goods. Countries with colonies established strict trade rules, viewing colonies as sources of cheap raw materials.

📉 Decline of Mercantilism

In the 18th century, resistance to mercantilism grew. Adam Smith advocated for capitalism in The Wealth of Nations, stressing free trade without government control.

📈 Rise of Capitalism

Adam Smith is credited as the creator of modern capitalism, based on three natural laws of economics:

1. Law of Self-Interest: People work for their own good.

2. Law of Competition: Competition forces people to make better products.

3. Law of Supply and Demand: Goods are produced at the lowest possible price to meet market demands.

The "invisible hand" of supply and demand dictates the market.

⛓ Atlantic Slavery

Chattel Slavery is a system where slaves and their descendants were considered property, specifically because of their race.

The growing demand for labor in European colonies led to new approaches to slavery, with Africans and Indigenous Peoples captured and enslaved.

• 1400s: Portuguese began bringing slaves back to Europe.

• 1500s: Britain, France, Spain, and Holland joined the slave trade to provide labor to plantations in the New World.

• America began using slaves on cotton and tobacco plantations in the South.

Abolitionist Movements

Olaudah Equiano, who was sold into slavery at age 11, bought his freedom, learned to read and write in England, and became a member and founder of Sons of Africa. His book, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, propelled the abolition movement forward.

Key Developments in Abolition

• Olaudah Equiano’s autobiography revealed the realities of slave life.

• The abolitionist movement grew, leading many countries to outlaw slavery.

• The Emancipation Act of 1833 outlawed slavery throughout the British Empire.

• 1861-1865: American Civil War

• 1863: The Emancipation Proclamation was signed in the United States.

🤝 Indentured Servitude

Indentured Servitude involved poor settlers signing contracts for low pay, used as low-cost labor in the colonies, typically for seven years. Child labor was also common. Indentured servitude replaced slavery in many colonies. Factory labor in Europe became a new form of worker exploitation, characterized by low wages, long hours, and harsh conditions.

Connection Between Slavery and Industrial Labor

1. Industrialization increased the demand for raw materials.

2. Slavery was abolished, but exploitation continued.

3. Capitalism and labor exploitation shifted from slavery to industrial labor.

Key Points

• Factories needed cotton, sugar, and tobacco from colonies.

• Enslaved labor produced these goods, fueling industrial economies.

• Wealth from slavery was reinvested into industrial factories.

• Industrialists used cheap labor to maximize profits.

Chapter 6

Historical Globalization Legacies

Key Terms 🌍

Here are some key terms to understand the historical context of globalization:

• Depopulation: A significant reduction in the population of an area.

• Deindustrialization: The decline of industrial activity in a region or economy.

• Eurocentrism: A way of thinking that centers on one’s own race and culture, particularly using European ethnic, national, religious, and linguistic criteria to judge other peoples and their cultures.

• Ethnocentrism: A way of thinking that centers on one’s own ethnic group. Ethnocentric people believe that their worldview is the only valid one, often leading to conflict between groups. A word that combines "ethnic" and "center."

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year.

• Legacy: Something that has been passed on by those who lived in the past, including political, oral, or written histories, tangible objects, traditions, and celebrations.

Modern Manifestations 🌐

• English and French are the official languages of Canada, prioritized over other languages.

• Western culture and ideals are widely spread and popularized.

Media Bias and Historical Quotes 📰

• Biased media coverage, such as in the Russian/Ukraine war, shows Eurocentrism.

• Historical quotes, such as Lord Kitchener’s statement about the inherent superiority of Europeans, reflect Eurocentrism during the Age of Imperialism.

Age of Imperialism Statistics 📈

Scramble for Africa 🌍

• In the 19th century, Africa was controlled by Africans.

• This changed in 1884 when European powers met in Berlin to divide Africa.

• The main reason was to avoid conflicts with other European powers.

Key Causes of the Scramble for Africa 🔑

• Raw Materials: European countries wanted Africa’s natural resources.

• New Markets: Colonies provided places to sell European manufactured goods.

• Nationalism: Colonies increased national prestige.

• Military and Naval Bases: Colonies taken for strategic purposes.

• Economic Motivations: Competition for resources and markets.

• Political and Strategic Rivalries: European countries competed to expand their empires.

• Superior Weapons: Gave Europeans a major advantage in warfare.

• Medical Advances: Quinine helped Europeans survive tropical diseases.

Congo 🇨🇫

• In the early 1880s, King Léopold II of Belgium sparked the scramble for Africa.

• By 1885, Léopold had forced the Indigenous peoples of the Congo region to give up much of their land and to work harvesting natural rubber.

• Indigenous people who resisted were brutally punished.

• Léopold was forced to hand control of the Congo to the Belgian government in 1908.

Effects of European Empires 💥

By the early 20th century, European empires had drastically changed the lives and cultures of the people under their rule.

🌍 Ethnocentrism, Eurocentrism, and Cultural Contact

The legacies of historical globalization are far-reaching and complex, impacting people around the world in various ways. Key aspects include:

• Colonial expansion: The spread of European powers and their systems of governance, trade, and culture across the globe.

• Industrialization: The shift towards mechanized production, leading to economic and social changes.

• Cultural contact: The interaction between different cultures, often resulting in the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and practices.

🚶Migration and Immigration

Migration and immigration patterns are significantly influenced by the legacies of historical globalization.

• People move in search of:

  • A better life and opportunities

  • Escape from conflict, famine, or natural disasters

  • Religious freedom

🏘 Displacement

European imperialists forced people from their land because colonists needed land of their own.

They disregarded Indigenous peoples' lifestyles, beliefs, and traditions. This has led to wars, unrest, and violence in many former colonies. This includes the partition of India.

Europeans drew political borders that failed to take into account indigenous peoples' ethnicity, culture, and religions.

📉 Depopulation

• Famine and Disease: Killed an estimated 30 million people in India in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

• Indentured Labor: A system where people worked without wages in exchange for passage to another country. Workers entered into indentures (contracts) to serve an employer for a certain number of years. In return, the workers received transportation and legal entry, as well as food, shelter, and other assistance. People who worked under indentures were sometimes called indentured servants.

• Slavery: Before it was abolished, slavery greatly depopulated Africa. Those taken were often strong young men, which made it difficult for families left behind to survive.

🗣 Language

The spread of languages is a major legacy of globalization. Examples include:

• English spoken around the world

• French spoken in Africa

• Spanish spoken in Central and South America

Imperial powers changed the culture of people in their colonies over time, forcing indigenous peoples to speak their languages.

👑 Legacy of British Imperialism in India

India was called ‘The Jewel in the Crown’ of the British Empire. Britain was becoming extremely wealthy from India’s resources which were then sold back to the large population as finished goods, embodying mercantilism.

Originally, India was controlled by a British trading company called the East India Company. They were granted a trade monopoly in exchange for ruling India for Britain, which they did with their own large, private army. Corruption and brutality were rampant during the East India Company’s reign in India, so the British government took control of the colony in 1858. This period was referred to as ‘The Raj’ (The Rule). Britain had control of India from the 1700s up to 1947.

🕊 Gandhi

Mohandas Gandhi successfully led India to independence in 1947. He was strongly opposed to violence and preached ‘non-cooperation’ as a means of getting the British to leave India.

Gandhi believed that every Indian should be self-sufficient, and he used the cotton industry as a powerful symbol of both British oppression and Indians’ desire for self-sufficiency and independence. He was ‘anti-industrialization’ because he was wary of the exploitation he witnessed in England, where industry was more developed.

Aung San Suu Kyi's Political Journey

This image shows Aung San Suu Kyi at a podium representing the National League for Democracy, a pivotal moment in her fight for democracy in Myanmar.

• Returned to Myanmar in 1988 to protest military dictatorship.

• Founded the National League for Democracy (NLD).

• In 1989, placed under house arrest.

• 1990: Won 82% of the vote, but results were ignored.

• Offered exile but chose to remain under house arrest.

Achievements and Struggles

• 1991: Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for promoting democracy.

• Remained under house arrest until 2010.

• 2012: Met President Obama, gave Nobel acceptance speech.

• 2015: NLD won Myanmar’s first democratic election.

• 2017: Appointed State Counsellor, fighting for democracy and human rights.

Chapter 7

Early Exploration of Canada 🇨🇦

Early exploration in Canada was less about establishing colonial outposts and more about discovering a quicker route to the riches of Asia.

The map shows Cartier's First Voyage to the New World in 1534, tracing his route along the eastern coast of Canada. Key events in the early exploration of Canada include:

• 1497: John Cabot's voyage to Newfoundland

• 1534: Jacques Cartier's voyage to Quebec

The few settlements in the early 17th century were limited to fish and furs. Europeans were greatly assisted by Indigenous Peoples in obtaining these items. It took over a century from the time of Cabot and Cartier before any semblance of permanent settlement was established by Europeans in Canada. This brought the Indigenous Peoples into globalized trade.

The Genocide of the Beothuk 💀

The map shows Eastern Canadian Territory and various Indigenous peoples' territories. The Beothuk people of Newfoundland were the first casualties of European colonialism in North America. Conflict over access to coastal fishing led Europeans to hunt and kill the Beothuk, driving them inland. Those not killed outright became undernourished and died of starvation and disease. By 1829, all Beothuks were completely wiped out as a culture.

Indigenous Peoples and European Explorers 🤝

The image is a portrait of a young Inuit woman. Early settlements by Europeans were very gradual and didn't pose much of a threat to Indigenous Peoples. The harshness of the Canadian climate made European settlers reliant on Indigenous technology, such as hunting techniques, sources of vitamin C, canoes, snowshoes, and toboggans. Initially, indigenous peoples helped Europeans adapt to the Canadian environment.

• Provided knowledge of sleds, snowshoes, and hunting techniques.

• Relationships deteriorated, leading to conflict.

British Control of Canada 🇬🇧

Competition between France and Britain erupted into the Seven Years’ War from 1754-1763, ending with the Battle on the Plains of Abraham. Britain gained control of a large territory of French-speaking citizens. Initially, the British intended to assimilate the French through the Royal Proclamation Act of 1763 and by encouraging British settlers to come to Quebec. The fact that the French greatly outnumbered the British in Quebec made assimilation a non-starter. Concessions were required to ensure the loyalty of the French population under British control.

Economic, Social, and Environmental Changes 💸

• Consider the changes before the British and French arrival and after, focusing on:

  • Economic changes

  • Social changes

  • Environmental impact

Accommodation Replaces Assimilation 🤝

The Quebec Act of 1774 recognized French language and culture rights within the framework of British rule.

The HBC and the Impacts of Mercantilism 💰

At first, Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) traders limited their activities to coastal areas and relied on First Nations, such as the Cree, to carry furs to them. Inland forts were built later as competition with the rival North West Company intensified. Aboriginal people were caught up in this trade, which had global implications. Mercantilism: Both France and Britain followed mercantilist policies in Canada, with laws in place to ensure raw materials were sent to the mother countries for processing/manufacturing. Mercantilism stifled development by ensuring that the country’s economy was limited to supplying raw materials.

The Effects on Indigenous Peoples 😥

The map shows Canada's provinces and territories in 1871. Settlement of the west followed, and Aboriginal people were ultimately displaced off their lands. Eventually, competition in the fur trade led to forts being established further inland.

Post-Confederation Canada 🇨🇦

After Confederation in 1867, the Federal government began expanding westward by gaining control of Rupert’s land in 1869. The success of the settlement plan required the First Nations people to relinquish their claims on their territories peacefully.

The Numbered Treaties ✍

The map shows Canada's various regions and treaty boundaries. A series of numbered treaties were signed between First Nations and the Canadian government between 1871 and 1921. These treaties ceded land to the government for settlement in exchange for annual payments and other benefits, including education, healthcare, and livestock. First Nations were given small parcels of land called reservations to 'maintain' traditional ways of life. Promises made by government negotiators did not always get included in written versions of the treaties, making it easier for the government to deny parts of the agreement. Cultural differences in the understanding of these treaties also contributed to feelings of resentment and betrayal.

The Indian Act 📜

The image shows the Justice Laws Website of Canada, a comprehensive resource for legal information. The objective of the Indian Act was to encourage assimilation. The Indian Act was passed in 1876 as a means of strictly controlling the lives of Indigenous peoples.

• It banned some cultural practices.

• Defined who was and was not a status Indian eligible for specified benefits.

• Status Indian: Someone who is registered according to the provisions of the Indian Act and is, therefore, eligible to receive special benefits.

Critics argue the Indian Act:

• Ensures Indigenous peoples do not receive equal treatment

• Limits indigenous rights to self-governance/self-determination

• Assumes that federal government officials are the best judges of Indigenous needs

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples 👑

In 1991, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) was established to investigate the relationship between the federal government and Indigenous peoples. The commission sought to address the question:

“What are the foundations of a fair and honorable relationship between the indigenous and non-indigenous peoples of Canada?”

In 1996, the final findings on Canadian relations with Indigenous peoples were provided:

“The main policy direction, pursued for more than 150 years, first by colonial then by Canadian governments, has been wrong.”

This acknowledged the harm done to Indigenous peoples by the hand of the Canadian government. As a result, the Canadian government issued a statement of reconciliation in 1998.

Changing the Indian Act ✍

The Canadian government's failed attempt to change the Indian Act. In 2002, an attempt to change the Indian Act was proposed, known as the First Nations Governance Bill. The government claimed it would give Indigenous communities more power and would lead them to be more self-sustaining. The goal was to eliminate the harmful elements of the Indian Act while still maintaining the financial and treaty obligations. Many Indigenous groups disagreed with the claims made by the Canadian government and played virtually no part in creating this bill. As a result, the Canadian government scrapped the bill. Debate surrounding the Indian Act is an ongoing issue today.

Residential Schools in Canada 🏫

Background 📜

The residential school system in Canada was designed to assimilate Indigenous people into mainstream Canadian society. During this time, mainstream Canadian society was Eurocentric, English-ran, and Christian.

Under the Indian Act, children aged 6 to 16 were legally required to attend these schools. Western Canada, especially the prairies, had the most residential schools. Children were forcibly removed from their families, with families threatened with imprisonment if they did not comply.

The schools were funded by the federal government under the Indian Act but were run by various church denominations:

Deconstruction of Identity 👤

Students were required to live on school premises with no contact with their families for ten months or even years due to the distance between their communities and the schools. Students were prohibited from speaking their native languages, even among themselves, to force them to learn English or French and forget their own languages.

The Role of the Church 🤔

Consider the role of the church in the residential school system. Was it individuals making bad choices, or was it a systemic issue? Some argue that Christianity itself is not to blame but that individuals misused their free will, leading to devastating consequences.

Conditions in Residential Schools 🏫

The following conditions characterized life at residential schools:

• Language: Students were only allowed to speak English or French.

• Labor: Students were required to perform manual labor such as cleaning, cooking, and working on farms.

• Education: Students received a Christian education and were often coerced to adopt Christianity.

• Rules: Strict rules governed every aspect of their behavior and routine.

• Physical Labor: Many students were tasked with physical labor, including farming, carpentry, and sewing.

• Punishments: Physical punishments were common for speaking their native language or breaking school rules.

In addition to the above conditions, students were also subjected to physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. Overall, the residential school system created significant psychological trauma. Children were stripped away from their families, had no contact with them for extended periods, and faced numerous forms of punishment and abuse.

Intergenerational Trauma 💔

The consequences of residential schools extend beyond the individuals who attended them. Intergenerational trauma refers to the trauma that is passed down from one generation to the next.

Survivors of residential schools often experienced psychological, sexual, and physical abuse, which limited their development and ability to form relationships. This trauma has contributed to issues such as homelessness and disproportionately affects Indigenous communities. As a result, children of survivors may struggle with emotional regulation, mental health issues, and a sense of loss of cultural identity, making it vital to address these impacts through community support and healing initiatives.

Truth & Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

The TRC is a component of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement. Its mandate is to inform all Canadians about what happened in Indian Residential Schools (IRS). The Commission will document the truth of survivors, families, communities and anyone personally affected by the IRS experience.

Canada and Multiculturalism 🇨🇦

Up until the mid 20th century, Canada’s policy on immigration was based largely on race. British immigrants were recruited, and those who did not come from Europe/America were discouraged. However, attitudes were changing, and Canadians started to believe this laid the foundations for a diverse society in respecting and accommodating differences.

By 1968, Canada’s immigration policy became more accepting, and immigrants were flowing from Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean, creating a mix of ethnic groups and cultures that coexist in a society. By the 1970s, most immigrants to Canada were from minority groups, adding to Canada’s cultural mosaic.

Multiculturalism: To deal with the increasing diversity in Canada, the government enacted a policy of multiculturalism in 1971. It's the idea that people are free to retain their own cultural traditions. The idea that a country is made up of many culturally distinct groups.

Multiculturalism rejects assimilation and embraces cultural pluralism.

Backlash on Multiculturalism

Not everyone agreed with the policy of multiculturalism. Some Quebecois believed it was a strategy to undermine Francophone culture. Some believed it would erode Canada’s “British heritage”. Despite the opposition, the idea of multiculturalism enjoys broad public support. A 2002 survey found that 74 percent of respondents support this policy. Many have come to view diversity as a hallmark of Canadian identity.

Indigenous Peoples Perspective

Here are a few ways the Indigenous Peoples of Canada might feel about Multiculturalism:

• marginalized even more as residential were still going

• betrayed - they will accept outside cultures but what about us

• Why shouldn’t the FNMI have at LEAST these same rights

• Shitty - now there’s a push for multiculturalism but what about Eurocentrism and assimilation

• convenient now as immigrants are needed for the tax base / labour

• multiculturalism is opening people’s eyes to the plight of the FNMI

This infographic shows Canada as a Nation of Diversity. In it, we can see that over 7 million people in Canada are foreign-born, more than 200 languages are spoken, and 1.4 million people are Aboriginal. Additionally, it notes that Canada was the first country to pass a national multiculturalism law in 1988 and will celebrate its 150th birthday as a nation in 2017.

Internment Camps 🏕

German/Ukrainian

The image shows a stark contrast between soldiers and prisoners. By the start of WWI, more than 1 million German and Austria-Hungarian immigrants lived in Canada. Due to WWI, people feared that these people could be spies. Although no evidence of disloyalty was ever found, their rights were still restricted. German and Ukrainian immigrants were labeled as enemy aliens, and they were ordered to report regularly to police. More than 8500 people were placed into internment camps. People were forced to work in mines, as well as building roads in Banff and Jasper National Parks. Conditions were prison-like. The federal government provides $2.5 million for memorials and internment education, but no apology was ever given.

Japanese

During the late 19th/early 20th century, many Japanese immigrants settled in British Columbia. During WWII, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and attacked Canadian soldiers in Hong Kong. In response, the Canadian government moved Japanese Canadians away from the Pacific Coast and into the B.C. interior and into the prairies into internment camps.

Prisoners could only bring what they could carry, and all other possessions were confiscated and sold to pay for their internment. Conditions in these camps were extremely poor. Up to 10 families were forced into small huts for living, with food shortages so extreme that the Red Cross had to provide emergency rations at times. The government provided $21,000 to each person interned in 1988 and issued an official apology.

Background 📜

The residential school system in Canada was designed to assimilate Indigenous people into mainstream Canadian society. During this time, mainstream Canadian society was Eurocentric, English-ran, and Christian.

Under the Indian Act, children aged 6 to 16 were legally required to attend these schools. Western Canada, especially the prairies, had the most residential schools. Children were forcibly removed from their families, with families threatened with imprisonment if they did not comply.

The schools were funded by the federal government under the Indian Act but were run by various church denominations:

Deconstruction of Identity 👤

Students were required to live on school premises with no contact with their families for ten months or even years due to the distance between their communities and the schools. Students were prohibited from speaking their native languages, even among themselves, to force them to learn English or French and forget their own languages.

The Role of the Church 🤔

Consider the role of the church in the residential school system. Was it individuals making bad choices, or was it a systemic issue? Some argue that Christianity itself is not to blame but that individuals misused their free will, leading to devastating consequences.

Conditions in Residential Schools 🏫

The following conditions characterized life at residential schools:

• Language: Students were only allowed to speak English or French.

• Labor: Students were required to perform manual labor such as cleaning, cooking, and working on farms.

• Education: Students received a Christian education and were often coerced to adopt Christianity.

• Rules: Strict rules governed every aspect of their behavior and routine.

• Physical Labor: Many students were tasked with physical labor, including farming, carpentry, and sewing.

• Punishments: Physical punishments were common for speaking their native language or breaking school rules.

In addition to the above conditions, students were also subjected to physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. Overall, the residential school system created significant psychological trauma. Children were stripped away from their families, had no contact with them for extended periods, and faced numerous forms of punishment and abuse.

Intergenerational Trauma 💔

The consequences of residential schools extend beyond the individuals who attended them. Intergenerational trauma refers to the trauma that is passed down from one generation to the next. Survivors of residential schools often experienced psychological, sexual, and physical abuse, which limited their development and ability to form relationships. This trauma has contributed to issues such as homelessness and disproportionately affects Indigenous communities.

Chapter 8 - 🌍 Legacies of Historical Globalization 🌍

Ethnic Groups in Rwanda

The two main ethnic groups in Rwanda are the Hutus and the Tutsis.

Colonial Rule and Resentment

Colonial rule in Rwanda, first by Germany and then by Belgium, favored the Tutsis, granting them preferential status in the colonial administration. This favoritism led to built-up resentment by the Hutu majority.

Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)

The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) is a para-military organization of Tutsis who were driven out of Rwanda after World War II. In 1990, they invaded Rwanda from refugee camps in Uganda, leading to a 3-year civil war.

Genocide Defined

Genocide is the mass killing of human beings, especially a targeted group of people.

UN Peacekeepers in Rwanda

The UN peacekeepers stationed in Rwanda were unable to stop the killings because they were instructed by the UN headquarters in New York (Security Council) not to intervene in the ‘ethnic dispute’. As a result, they were powerless to do more than protect foreign nationals while witnessing the bloodshed of Tutsis and moderate Hutus.

Gacaca Courts

Gacaca courts were community courts established in Rwanda to try low-level officials and ordinary people accused of participating in the Rwandan genocide. These courts aimed to speed up the justice process and encourage reconciliation.

Rwandan Genocide Explained

The genocide in Rwanda was sparked by years of preferential treatment given to the minority Tutsis, creating tension. When Rwanda became independent, the Hutu majority consistently elected Hutus as president, often mistreating the Tutsis and engaging in civil wars. In 1994, the Hutu President's plane was shot down, allegedly by Tutsi rebels, which ignited the Hutus' anger and triggered the genocide. The genocide ended when the Tutsi-led RPF successfully pushed the Hutu army and militia out of Rwanda.

Apartheid

Apartheid is an Afrikaans word that refers to a policy of segregating and discriminating against non-whites in South Africa.

Soweto Student Protest

The Soweto student protest is considered the beginning of the end of apartheid because the killings made headlines worldwide and caused a storm of protest against apartheid.

Nelson Mandela

Nelson Mandela was a South African who was jailed for protesting against apartheid. He spent over 26 years in prison before being released. After gaining his freedom, he continued to speak out against apartheid and eventually became the first black president of South Africa.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

After Nelson Mandela's election as president, he established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to confront the country’s violent past, bring together victims and accused, and reconcile people who had been in deadly conflict.

Internment of German and Ukrainian Canadians

During World War I, German and Ukrainian Canadians were interned in work camps due to fears that they would act as spies for the Austro-Hungarian empire.

Treatment of Japanese Canadians

During World War II, Japanese Canadians were moved to internment camps after the attack on Pearl Harbor, similar to the treatment of Germans and Ukrainians during World War I. Their property was confiscated and sold to cover the costs of their internment.

Criticisms Against the Indian Act

The Indian Act is criticized for:

• Ensuring that First Nations peoples do not receive equal treatment.

• Limiting First Nations’ right to self-government and self-determination.

• Assuming that Federal government officials are the best judges of the needs of First Nations peoples.

Indian Act Changes in 2002

No changes were made to the Indian Act in 2002. Although changes were proposed, the government backed away from making any modifications due to opposition.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an organization established by groups of people to work toward specific goals and to gain public support in achieving these goals. NGOs depend on volunteer workers and donations, but they also receive grants or contracts from the government.

Examples of NGOs:

• Greenpeace

• Human Rights Watch

• Doctors Without Borders

Grameen Bank

The Grameen Bank provides microloans to poor people in the Global South, enabling them to start small businesses and support themselves.

Success of Grameen Bank

The Grameen Bank is considered a success because it has loaned millions of dollars to poor people to help them escape poverty, with a 99% loan repayment rate. It has also helped thousands of children attend school through a scholarship program.

Muhammad Yunus and Terrorism

Muhammad Yunus believes that terrorism can only be defeated by alleviating poverty and improving the lives of poor people around the world.

Addressing the Rich-Poor Gap

Governments and NGOs work to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor by helping those in poverty become self-sufficient.

Foreign Aid

Foreign aid is money, supplies, other goods, and expertise given by one country to another. The goal can be humanitarian, but often includes hidden political considerations as nations act in their self-interest.

Gross National Income (GNI)

Gross National Income (GNI) is the amount of money earned by everyone in a country.

United Nations and Foreign Aid

The United Nations encourages developed countries to provide foreign aid equivalent to 0.07% of their GNI to developing countries. However, this recommendation has not been very effective because most wealthy nations give less than that amount.

Canada's Foreign Aid Contributions

Canada has traditionally donated less than 0.05% of its GNI annually, falling short of the UN's recommendation.