Sociology of Education Week 3 pls work
School Choice
refers to the options available to parents and students when selecting an educational institution
In the United States, it includes:
Public schools
Private schools
Charter schools
Magnet schools
Homeschooling
Voucher programs
The concept empowers families to choose the best learning environment for their children based on academic, social, cultural, and personal needs.
School Choice Advantages:
Tailored Education:
School choice enables families to choose schools that align with their child’s learning style, interests, or special needs, for example, gifted programs, special education programs, or programs with alternative teaching philosophies.
Increased Competition:
Encourages schools to improve their academic performance, curriculum, offerings, and student support to attract families, this can lead to innovation and a wide variety of education models.
Promotes equity and access (?)
Low-income families and those in underserved areas have more options beyond their public schools their neighbourhood public school voucher programs and charter schools can provide access to higher quality education, foresters greater engagement and satisfaction with others.
Parental empowerment
Offers flexibility and more control over their children’s education
School Choice Challenges and Criticisms:
Raises significant concerns about equity, resource allocation, and the overall impact on public education systems.
School choice initiatives exacerbate academic inequity by creating elite opportunities for certain segments of the population.
“Charter schools erode public education, and we need to be critical about applying a consumer lens to schooling through the concept of choice and commercial branding because this stacks educational opportunities for some while preventing access for others”
Data from stat can for the 2019-2020 school year shows the percentage of students who attend public schools, alternative schools, private schools, and homeschooling:
The overwhelming majority of students are choosing public schools regardless of what province or territory they live in
for example, 93% of students attend public schools in Ontario
7% participate in private or independent
0.3% do homeschooling
School “Choice” in the Public System:
Alternative schools
Part of the education system differs in philosophy, curriculum, and teaching methods when compared to mainstream schools.
They focus on:
Smaller schools and class sizes
which allows personalized instruction and relationships between teachers and students
Non-traditional learning models
I.e. experiential learning, project-based approaches, or self-directed learning
Flexible curriculum
Customized to fit students’ interests, strengths, and learning styles, often including non-standard subjects
Community involvement
Emphasize parental and student participation in decision-making.
Benefits:
Students have more input into their learning process, fostering independence and creativity, strong relationships, and closer-knit communities.
These may provide inclusive environments that cater to students with diverse learning needs, including those who struggle in traditional settings.
TDSB (Toronto District School Board)
It is one of the largest school boards in Canada, serving over 240,00 students within 550 schools.
Alternative schools were established in the TDSB in the 1970s to address various educational needs that were unmet by traditional schools.
19 elementary alternative schools
Focus on inquiry-based learning or environmental education.
21 secondary alternative schools
include thematic schools for arts, social justice, academic, or hands-on learning
Africentric Alternative School (TDSB)
Opened in 2009 as a response to the educational needs of black students within the TDSB
This school is one of 19 alternative public schools run by the TDSB and operates in the wind of the Shephard public school, so it is a program that runs within a school.
It was developed to:
address systemic barriers
improve the academic outcomes of black students
foster a stronger connection to their African heritage
It centers African and diasporic perspectives, histories and cultures, enhancing black students’ sense of identity and belonging.
The Afrocentric perspectives are woven into the entire curriculum, including subjects like math, science, history, and language arts in subjects like history and social studies.
There is a focus on:
African civilizations,
the contribution of the African diaspora
Black Canadian history
While the school emphasizes academic achievement, it also focuses on the following:
The emotional, spiritual, and social development of students
While the school was designed with a focus on black students, it is open to all students open to African education.
It also has smaller class sizes.
Barriers:
SOME believed it would lead to segregation for some reason.
There have been ongoing efforts to expand this school model. However, enrollment appears to be declining
and also has been experiencing funding issues.
Criticisms of alternative schools:
These schools can create a two-tiered system where resources and opportunities are unevenly distributed:
“ Market Choices” or Structured Pathways?
Authors look at who can access and ultimately benefit from these specialty arts programs in schools.
Schools play a huge role in sorting students into particular career trajectories and shaping individual futures.
Alternative schools ultimately benefit affluent families and students with access to high levels of social and cultural capital.
Authors argue that these schools are key mechanisms for inequalities to be produced.
Gatztambide-Fernandez & Parekh (2017) Study:
Looks at the racial identification of those attending specialty arts programs in the TDSB
Students are disproportionately white
In addition to being wealthier
much more likely to have had parents that went to university compared to elementary schools
Suggests that students are more likely to arrive in these programs not only if they have access to the necessary arts training for success in the selection process but also if they come from the right type of schools
The author's analysis shows students come from schools that are also more economically privileged, less racially diverse, and more likely to have parents with a university education than most elementary schools across Toronto district school board.
Produced the same patterns of academic equality as streaming
TDSB MAP
Alternative schools are not available in all neighbourhoods, and this limits the accessibility to them for a lot of populations.
Map schools green for elementary and pink for secondary
Shows that these schools are not evenly distributed throughout Toronto, a majority of them are in the downtown core
Suburbs like Scarboro of Toronto are usually associated with higher crime rates and poverty
There are four secondary alternative schools in Scarborough:
Southeast Secondary Alternative School:
Serves students 16-20 and offers applied college and open-level courses
Does not offer academic or university-level courses
Scarborough Park View:
Re-engaging at-risk youth between the ages of 16-20 offers applied-level courses
Love Scarborough Campaign:
Created in 2022 to highlight the fact that Scarborough, which accounts for 25% of the Toronto population, was receiving less than 1% of the hospital donations of that region
The campaign features real people from Scarboro and generates conversation on the inequalities within the healthcare system.
John Tori even named January 13th the Love Scarboro Day,
Scarborough has a history of being underfunded and lacking resources despite accounting for 25% of the Toronto population and being the most diverse area in the GTA.
The Idea of Limited Access TDSB lottery
The idea of limited access admission is often competitive, and schools may not have the space for all interested students.
About two years ago, the TDSB wanted to do something about the fact that the students attending alternative schools were pretty homogenous in terms of their demographic characteristics, and they wanted the students of these schools to reflect the overall student population.
Chair said that all students have to access these programs and introduced TWO very important changes:
1. the assessment of ability,
so auditions, formal portfolios, entrance exams, and report card marks will no longer be used. However, students are required to demonstrate an interest or passion in their chosen field of study
2. Engaging in a lottery when applications to the program exceeded the available number of spots, and generally speaking, they always do.
What they did was first prioritize spots for Indigenous students and students who already have siblings in the school, and then for 25% of space available, a computer system separates students from underrepresented groups, including black Middle Eastern and Latin X students.
This system created a lot of controversy as many parents argued it eliminated merit.
Criticisms of Alternative Schools REVIEW:
1. Alternative schools can create a two-tiered system where resources and opportunities are unevenly distributed
2. alternative schools are not available in all neighbourhoods, which can limit accessibility for some students
4. Admission is often competitive, and schools may not have space for all interested students.
5. Many alternative schools require significant parental involvement, which can exclude families with fewer resources or time
Separate School Boards
Ontario has four types of publicly funded school systems.
1. English public
(31 School boards)
2. French Public
(4 School Boards)
3. English Catholic
(separate) (29 school boards=examples include Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB), (OCSB)
4. French Catholic
(Separate) (8 School boards = examples include Conseil Scolaire Catholique MonAvenir and Conseil Scolaire Catholique Providence)
Catholic Schools
They are faith-based and generally represent schools that are associated with the catholic faith, although a handful of protestant school boards do exist.
They were established to provide publicly funded Catholic education (section 3 of the BNA Act)
Quebec
eliminated its catholic and protestant school boards in 1997, and New Land held a referendum that same year that was in favour of halting the funding of all denominational schools.
Manitoba
made the change back in 1890, and because Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, PEI, and BC didn’t have separate catholic school systems when they entered the confederation, the constitutional protections for catholic schooling didn’t apply to them.
These school boards operate parallel to public school boards, but they’re governed by catholic trustees.
Catholic trustees
are elected by catholic taxpayers during municipal elections.
While catholic school boards have autonomy, the curriculum and major policy decisions are overseen by the Ontario Ministry of Education
which means they follow the same provincial curriculum as public schools, ensuring a standardized learning outcome across subjects like math, science, and literacy.
Catholic schools, however, integrate religious education and catholic teachings into the curriculum.
They focus on and Integrate:
Religion classes are required as a core part of the curriculum
Schools also celebrate religious sacraments and prayer services
Although catholic and non-catholic students may also attend, especially in high schools, however catholic students are prioritized in Ontario.
Criticisms of Catholic School Boards:
Public funding:
Catholic school board is publicly funded, they cover operational expenses, teacher salaries, and also infrastructure
Catholic property owners in Ontario can designate their education taxes to fund catholic schools.
However, this has created a lot of criticism.
Maintaining separate education systems is costly to the provinces that have them.
Federation of Urban Neighbourhoods of Ontario:
Estimated annual savings of up to 1.5 billion dollars if catholic school boards were absorbed into the public school system
Some groups and political parties have proposed merging catholic and public schools into a single system to reduce costs and promote equity.
Critics argue that public funding for a religiously based system creates inequality as other religious groups do not receive similar funding.
As far back as 1999, the UN committee ruled that material funding roman catholic schools while denying full funding to other religious schools constitutes discrimination.
Values unaligned with Canadian society:
In 2023, when the New York Catholic district school board refused to fly the pride flag at their central office, some people called for the defunding of catholic school boards.
In Ontario, though, former conservative education Minister Steven Leche himself said, “Every child should feel affirmed and should feel safe”
He had no comment on the New York school board, though
There have also been instances where Catholic school officials have organized field trips to attend protests on behalf of the church’s teachings against abortion, for example, more than 100 students from Red Deer, St, Joseph, and Notre Dame high schools were bussed to an anti-abortion rally held in front of the Alberta legislature in Edmonton in 2022.
Numerous court challenges, including at the Supreme Court of Canada, have upheld the constitutionality of Catholic School funding
with a growing number of non-catholic and non-christian families in Ontario, there is increasing pressure to reconsider the separate school system, but for now, it is protected under our constitution
French Immersion
As Ontario is a bilingual province, french immersion plays a key role in fostering bilingualism and providing students with enhanced language skills for future opportunities immersion programs
in Canada, are elementary or secondary programs offered in English language schools, in which French is the language of instruction for most of the school day
Many, if not all, subjects are taught in French except English classes
Immersion programs were created so students can acquire French as a second language skill
There has been a rise in yearly enrollments in French immersion programs over the last two decades
An increase of 76.4% in 20 years
French immersion programs have become more popular as students who learn both languages in school may benefit from increased multicultural awareness.
Easier travel throughout Canada and better access to bilingual jobs, as well as potential developmental and social benefits
Challenges to French Immersion
Limited access
Not all regions offer French immersion programs, limiting access, particularly in rural areas.
It is known that the availability of French immersion programs is lower in rural areas, which can be seen in their levels of participation in Canada.
Outside Quebec, participation of school-age children whose mother tongue is not French in French immersion programs was almost twice as high among children living in urban centers than those living outside these areas.
In some areas, demand for French immersion outweighs the availability, leading to very long wait lists.
Shortage of qualified French teachers
in 2023, the provinces began funding 110 additional speaking teachers in education spaces for the academic year
The ministry has also reduced certification timelines by 50% for internationally trained educators
In the TDSB, teacher shortages are making the news as they struggle to fill positions
Short-term fill-ins have occasionally taught French immersion classes, and some parents say a lack of stability is hurting their child’s education
Resources for classes that lack a regular teacher apart from teacher shortages
Limited access to French resources such as textbooks and educational materials, especially in upper-level subjects like science or math
Marginalized groups are also underrepresented in French immersion programs
For example, almost half of the students in French immersion identified as white students
Students with disabilities are underrepresented in French immersion programs
Thus, critics have argued that French immersion programs are an elitist system aiming to serve higher achieving, more affluent students with immersion programs in Toronto
Charter schools
Publicly funded independent schools
Funded by public money but are governed by the board rather than the local school board
The charter board typically consists of parents, teachers, and community members.
Whereas traditional public schools are governed by elected officials known as trustees
Charter schools have a specific educational focus on philosophy.
Benefits to Charter Schools
They have flexibility in hiring curriculum and school operations
This means that charter schools are in charge of all their hires and admissions
They report directly to the government.
The first charter school law was passed in Minnesota in 1991
Charter schools in the US have experienced significant growth since then, with over 7,000 schools that are serving around 3 million students
Charter schools were created in the United States to provide more choices in public education, especially for marginalized communities
So what about Canada?
In Canada, only Alberta has legislated charter schools
the rest of Canada relies on traditional public and private schools
Examples of charter schools in Alberta:
Suzuki Charter School in Edmonton
which delivers music instruction using the Suzuki method
Mother Earths Children Charter School
which focuses on traditional Indigenous teachings
While schools such as these sound a lot like alternative schools, they are distinctly different because they do not report to the local school board, but instead, they report directly to the provincial ministry, so charter schools are not accountable to publicly elected trustees, in the same way, that public schools are
Charter school limitations and critiques
Hidden Costs:
Supplemental fees such as registration and resource fees.
Example: Alberta Classic Academy charges a $265 resource fee for grades 1-8 and a $975 transportation fee annually.
Uniform costs add to the financial burden for parents.
Wealth Disparities:
Charter schools tend to attract students from wealthier socio-economic groups, partly due to the hidden costs.
In Alberta, data shows that charter school attendees come predominantly from affluent backgrounds.
Racial Segregation:
Charter schools often result in racial segregation, as seen in cities like New York City.
In the U.S., black and Hispanic students are overrepresented, while white and Asian students are underrepresented.
Contrast with private schools: 69% of private school students are white, while only 11% are black.
Research links highly segregated schools to lower graduation rates for black students, which correlates with reduced life expectancy.
Mixed Academic Results:
Critics in Ontario claim that charter schools could improve educational outcomes and address declining math scores, but there is no conclusive evidence to support this.
In Alberta and the U.S., findings on charter schools' academic achievements have been mixed.
American data (National Center for Statistics) shows no significant difference in reading, writing, or math scores between charter and public schools.
Achievement Gap:
Research suggests charter schools widen the achievement gap between black and white students.
Gifted programs in charter schools (17% in Alberta) contribute to improved test scores, but at-risk youth programs represent less than 1%, skewing public school rankings.
Selective Admissions:
Charter schools can pick and choose students, rejecting weaker applications to maintain high performance.
There is pressure to achieve high test scores to avoid the risk of closure.
Impact on Special Needs Students:
Charter schools may deny admission to students with disabilities to protect their test scores.
They often bypass parts of the Education Act that require accommodations for students with special education needs.
Governance and Accountability
Autonomy:
Charter schools have greater autonomy in areas such as curriculum design, governance, and staff hiring, which allows for innovation but raises concerns about equity and oversight.
Board of Directors:
Charter schools are governed by boards of directors, often made up of parents and community members. These boards are not democratically elected, raising concerns about public accountability.
Public Funding and Transparency:
Since charter schools are publicly funded, they are expected to use taxpayer money transparently and effectively.
However, concerns have been raised about whether these schools manage public resources efficiently.
Performance Targets:
Charter schools in Alberta are required to meet positive academic outcomes as part of their accountability, but critics argue that oversight by the Ministry of Education is inconsistent.
Private schools
Not publicly funded
Schools owned and operated outside of the public authority in Canada
often do not receive any government funding and instead charge tuition fees
BC, Manitoba, Alberta, and Quebec, however, provide some funding to private schools
if they meet a variety of conditions, such as hitting accredited teachers and teaching the curriculum set by the province of Canada
They are not funded by the government, and they’re not monitored except at the secondary level
They often have smaller class sizes with lower student-to-teacher ratios
they also offer customized curriculums that may not be available in public schools
Strong emphasis on extracurricular activities so that students are well-rounded
They also often set high academic standards
The best-known private school is Upper Canada College, an all-boys school located in Toronto that has been around since 1923
the first year of enrollment for a kindergarten student is 51,050$ as it includes tuition and one-time fees
Disadvantages:
The first is cost and affordability.
Selective admissions and the ability to restrict based on ethnicity, religion and performance
Not the same level of accountability, and there may be inconsistencies in quality among different institutions
Can contribute to social stratification
Can create homogenous environments
High reports of bullying,
for example, St. Mike College sexual assault, Upper Canada College sexual assaults
ROBSON CHAPTER 4 NOTES
Decentralization of Education
Canada has no federal education department; 13 jurisdictions (10 provinces, 3 territories) are responsible for education.
Education responsibilities are outlined in each jurisdiction's Education Act, covering organization, delivery, staff duties, accountability, and program types.
The decentralized system was established in 1867 to protect the diverse ethnic and religious populations in different regions.
Education is structured similarly across the country, though differences arise due to historical, cultural, and political circumstances.
2. Education Spending
In 2006, Canada spent 6.1% of its GDP on education, higher than the OECD average of 5.7%.
40% of this expenditure went to tertiary education, making Canada (along with the U.S.) the largest spender in this sector.
Education is a significant public expenditure, with around $80 billion spent annually across all government levels.
3. Education Structure
Education is categorized into four levels: pre-elementary, elementary, secondary, and post-secondary.
3.1 Pre-Elementary Programs
Pre-elementary (kindergarten) is available in all jurisdictions but varies in length and intensity (half-day vs. full-day).
Kindergarten is typically offered for children aged 4-5, with attendance mandatory only in some provinces (e.g., Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador).
Ontario offers two years of universally available pre-elementary education (junior and senior kindergarten).
3.2 Elementary and Secondary Programs
Public education is free for Canadian citizens and permanent residents.
Mandatory education generally begins at age 6 or 7 and ends at age 16 (with some provinces raising this to 18).
The elementary-secondary system covers 12 years, though some jurisdictions may include “middle school” or “junior high” for grades between elementary and high school.
Quebec has a unique structure, with 12 years of education divided into "cycles" instead of grades:
Elementary: Cycles I, II, III (Grades 1-6)
Secondary: Secondary I–V (Grades 7-11)
Quebec students must attend CEGEP (Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel) before university, either for two-year pre-university or three-year trade programs.
4. Funding and Private Schools
Public education is funded by municipal, provincial, federal, and private sources, with schools receiving a per-pupil amount.
Private schools, partially funded in some jurisdictions (6 total), must meet specific criteria, such as employing provincially certified teachers.
Around 93% of Canadian students attend publicly funded schools.
5. School Choice and the Edmonton Model
School choice refers to the ability of parents to select from different types of schools (public, private, alternative, charter, religious).
Edmonton Model:
Introduced in the 1970s to decentralize school governance.
Schools receive funding based on a weighted per-student formula, factoring in special needs.
Principals manage 90% of school budgets, enhancing local control.
The model promotes freedom from catchment areas, with parents choosing schools freely.
Adopted in other regions, including parts of the U.S.
Overview of School Governance in Canada
Provincial/Territorial Level:
Each province/territory has a ministry or department of education.
Headed by an elected minister, appointed by the party leader.
Ministries define policy, and legislative frameworks, and manage administration and finances.
Local Level:
Governance by school boards, school divisions, school districts, or district education councils.
Tasks vary by jurisdiction but generally include:
Financial administration.
Hiring teachers.
Implementing curriculum.
Making decisions on major expenditures.
Public school boards exist in every province and territory, representing local governance of K-12 education.
2. Local Governance Structure
School Trustees:
Elected during municipal elections.
Often voluntary or with a small stipend.
Represent public involvement in education governance.
School Superintendents:
Chief executive officer of the school board.
Responsible for supervising the school system and implementing board policies.
School Councils:
Made up of parents, teachers, staff, community members, and sometimes students.
Provide recommendations to school principals and boards.
Often involved in social events and fundraising.
Viewed as promoting parental involvement, though some see it as government regulation of such involvement.
3. Power Struggles and Reforms
New Brunswick (1996):
School boards were abolished, and replaced by school districts led by parent-run groups.
Reforms were intended to increase efficiency but met with protests, leading to the reintroduction of school boards in 2000.
Ontario (1997):
Under the Mike Harris government, school boards were reduced from 124 to 72, and trustees from 1,900 to 700.
Trustees' salaries were cut from $40,000 to $5,000.
School boards lost the power to levy property taxes, leading to standardized per-student funding.
Alberta (1995):
Alberta implemented similar reforms, disallowing school boards from collecting property taxes, also shifting to per-student funding.
4. Separate School Boards
Provinces with Separate School Boards:
Exist in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario.
Primarily Catholic, though some Protestant boards still exist.
Historical Context:
Rooted in the British North America Act of 1867, protecting denominational schools for Protestants and Catholics.
Provincial Reforms:
Newfoundland and Quebec eliminated denominational schools in the late 1990s, shifting to French and English school boards.
5. Funding Debates for Faith-Based Schools
Catholic Schools:
Publicly funded in provinces like Ontario, while other faith-based schools are not.
Legal Challenges:
Advocates for non-Catholic religious schools argue this system is discriminatory.
Notable case: Arieh Hollis Waldman challenged the policy at the UN, arguing that funding only Catholic schools violates human rights.
2007 Ontario Elections:
Funding for faith-based schools became a central issue, with the Conservative party proposing to extend funding to these schools. The Liberal party opposed this.
Definition of Alternative Schools
General Definition: Schools that differ in their delivery of education compared to mainstream public schools.
Key Features:
Emphasis on particular languages, cultures (e.g., Aboriginal), subjects (e.g., arts), or teaching philosophies.
Many cater to students at high risk of dropping out, particularly in British Columbia and Quebec.
Alternative high schools often have smaller class sizes and flexible schedules/curricula.
2. Examples Across Provinces
Alberta: Publicly funded alternative programs include fine arts, French immersion, German, hockey, science, and Montessori.
Montessori: Focuses on child-centred, experiential learning. Primarily for young children.
Ontario (Toronto District School Board - TDSB):
Elementary (19 schools) and Secondary (22 schools): Offer Ministry-approved courses with flexible delivery methods (e.g., independent study, cooperative groups).
Schools feature small student populations, individualized learning environments, and often include innovative or experimental programs.
Focus on specific specializations (e.g., Africentric education, social justice, arts).
3. Alternative Schools for Specific Student Populations
High-Risk Youth: Many alternative schools focus on students at risk of dropping out.
OASIS Alternative School (TDSB): Provides programs for LGBTQ+ youth, students interested in skateboarding or street art, and those engaged in experiential learning.
Elementary Schools in TDSB: Promote strong relationships among students, parents, teachers, and communities, with many schools emphasizing social justice and holistic learning.
4. Charter Schools
Definition: Semi-autonomous public schools offering specialized education; currently only exist in Alberta in Canada.
Key Characteristics:
Deliver the provincial curriculum in a unique or enhanced way as outlined in their charters.
Governance by a charter board (comprising parents, teachers, and community members) instead of local school authorities.
Must follow the Alberta Learning curriculum, but have autonomy in governance, funding, and hiring.
Charter schools are reviewed and renewed based on the success of their mandates.
Charter Schools in Alberta (2011):
There were 13 charter schools in Alberta, with the majority located in urban centers like Calgary, which had 83% of the charter school population.
Advantages:
Provide flexibility in curriculum delivery.
Accountability to the province ensures quality education.
Supporters argue competition with regular public schools may improve the public system.
Criticisms:
May encourage a two-tiered education system, with limited access to students from privileged socioeconomic backgrounds.
Charter school governance is not publicly elected, raising concerns about accountability.
French-Language Programs:
Charter Rights: Parents have the right to educate their children in their first language (English or French) as guaranteed by the Canadian Charter.
French-Language Schools: Available across Canada, children qualify if at least one parent is a native French speaker.
French Immersion Programs: Designed for non-French-speaking students; available in most areas except New Brunswick, where intensive French instruction replaces immersion after Grade 5.
Purpose: Promotes bilingualism and linguistic excellence in French.
Criticisms:
Potential "streaming" of students, with immersion programs more likely to attract students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and academic abilities.
Studies (Willms, 2008; Worswick, 2003) suggest immersion students are more affluent, less likely to have learning disabilities, and tend to perform better on standardized tests.
Aboriginal Education:
Legal Framework:
Constitution Act (1867) and Indian Act (1876) place responsibility for First Nations education on the federal government, primarily for those on reserves.
Off-reserve: Children attend provincial schools.
Federal Responsibility: The federal government funds primary and secondary education on First Nations reserves.
About 20% of First Nations children attend on-reserve schools, while the remainder attend provincial schools.
Challenges arise due to a lack of structure and clarity in federal policy.
Historical Impact of the Indian Act:
Education historically aimed at assimilation.
The Act allowed agreements with provinces and religious organizations to run schools but excluded First Nations from running their own schools.
Policy Changes: The 1972 Indian Control of Indian Education policy granted more control to First Nations bands over on-reserve schools.
Cree School Board (1975) was a notable example of self-governance in education.
Current Issues: Many First Nations schools remain underfunded and isolated, leading to a push for reforms, including partnerships with provincial schools and agreements granting First Nations more control.
International and Offshore Schools:
Canadian International Schools: Located in various countries, these schools follow Canadian provincial curricula and prepare students for Canadian secondary diplomas.
Inspection: Provincial ministries inspect these schools.
Clientele: Typically cater to globally mobile professional families.
Offshore Schools:
British Columbia’s Offshore Schools: B.C. Education Act amendments (2002) allow schools abroad, mostly in China, to offer the B.C. curriculum and hire B.C.-certified teachers.
Purpose: Prepare international students for post-secondary education in Canada and generate funding for public education in British Columbia through tuition fees.
Post-Secondary Education in Canada:
Institution Types:
Public Institutions: Funded primarily by the government (50% or more of operating capital); offer degrees, diplomas, and certificates.
Private Institutions: More limited, with some allowed to grant degrees.
Number of Institutions:
163 universities and 183 public colleges/institutes across Canada.
Quality assurance mechanisms ensure the credibility of credentials.
Funding:
Post-secondary education is supported through municipal, provincial, federal, and private funds.
Tuition: Covers around 20% of total funding.
University Governance Structure
Canadian universities are autonomous, non-profit corporations created under jurisdiction-specific acts or charters (Jones, Shanahan, & Goyan, 2001).
Bicameralism is the common governance model, with two legislative bodies:
Board of Governors (focused on policy and financial issues)
Senate (focuses on academic matters such as programs, admissions, and academic appeals) (Jones, Shanahan, & Goyan, 2001).
2. Composition of Governing Bodies
The Board of Governors generally comprises:
Alumni, external members (two-thirds from outside the university), faculty, students, and senior university administration (e.g., deans, president) (Jones, 2002).
The Senate is typically composed of faculty, students, and university administrators.
University president:
Appointed by the board, attends to day-to-day operations, delegates authority, and connects the university with the provincial government (Jones, 2002).
Participatory process for appointing higher-level administrators (e.g., deans, president), often involving search committees with diverse members, including students (Jones, 2002).
3. Faculty Associations
Faculty associations, both unionized and non-unionized, play significant roles in influencing:
Faculty salaries, workloads, tenure, promotion, and academic freedom.
Membership often includes part-time faculty and librarians (Jones, 2002).
4. Student Associations
Gained influence in the 1960s and 1970s.
Typically mandatory fee-paying membership for students.
Responsibilities include running campus services (pubs, restaurants), student social activities, and monitoring institutional policies (Jones, 2002).
College Governance
1. General Structure
Colleges and institutes vary widely, from those offering degree-granting programs to those specializing in job-related skills training (Orton, 2009).
Colleges are legislated under provincial College Acts and have a primary focus on education rather than research.
Colleges emphasize economic objectives in their mission statements (Orton, 2009).
2. Governance
Governance structures vary but are often characterized by:
Boards of Governors with representation from students, teachers, the public, and business or industry representatives.
Some colleges lack an equivalent to a university senate and tend to have direct links to business interests due to their vocational focus.
Academic freedom is generally not guaranteed in colleges, and career colleges often lack it altogether (Orton, 2009).
Public vs Private Post-Secondary Education
1. Public Institutions
Most Canadian universities and a fraction of colleges are publicly funded by municipal, provincial, and federal governments.
2. Private Institutions
Relatively few private universities exist in Canada.
Private institutions often have religious affiliations and rely on tuition and donations for funding.
Private universities became more common after provinces passed legislation allowing them to grant degrees (e.g., New Brunswick, Ontario in 1999-2000).
3. Arguments for and Against Private Universities
For:
Creates more student spaces without government cost.
Introduces competition to increase accountability.
Stimulates economic growth by attracting education entrepreneurs.
Promotes student choice (Cudmore, 2005).
Against:
Two-tiered system favouring the wealthy.
Potential for student debt due to high tuition.
Questionable quality of education, lack of provincial oversight, and reliance on part-time faculty (Cudmore, 2005).
Indigenous Post-Secondary Education
1. First Nations Institutions
The First Nations University of Canada, established in 1976 in partnership with the University of Regina, was the first Aboriginal-controlled institution in Canada.
It offers bi-lingual and bi-cultural education, with a mission focused on preserving First Nations' culture and history.
The institution has grown to an enrollment of about 1,200 students per year, mostly at the undergraduate level.
Vocational Training
Definition: Multi-year programs that provide instruction in a skill/trade leading directly to a job.
Types of Institutions: Secondary schools, public/private post-secondary colleges, and workplace-based apprenticeship programs.
Apprenticeship Pathways
Pre-apprenticeship programs: Offered by colleges or vocational schools.
Employer-sponsored apprenticeships: Direct entry into a trade by securing work.
Structure of Apprenticeship Programs
Training Model: 80% on-the-job training, 20% classroom learning (block release model).
Duration: Typically 3-5 years (6000 to 8000 hours).
Certification: Completion of training followed by an exam to become a certified journeyperson.
Provincial Variation: Different processes in Quebec, where in-school training precedes formal apprenticeship registration.
Apprenticeship Statistics
Workforce Representation: Apprenticeships account for only 1% of the Canadian labor force.
Apprentice Profile: The average age of apprentices is 28, higher than for other post-secondary students.
Industries Covered: Manufacturing, resource, and construction sectors.
Red Seal Trades
Purpose: Provides interprovincial mobility for skilled workers.
Number of Trades: Currently includes 52 trades, such as plumber, baker, ironworker, machinist, cook, roofer, and hairstylist.
Adult Education
Definition: Participation in education by individuals aged 25-64 who have left the initial education cycle (primary, secondary, or early post-secondary).
Drivers: Rapid technological changes and evolving work environments necessitate continued learning.
Types of Adult Education
Formal Adult Education: Structured programs leading to formal credentials (e.g., degrees, certificates, diplomas).
Non-formal Adult Education: Organized learning activities (e.g., workshops, seminars) without formal credentials.
Participation in Adult Education
Statistics: 40% of adults (aged 25-64) participated in formal or non-formal education in 2008.
Lifelong Learning
Continuing Education: Offered by many post-secondary institutions, adult education is necessary across sectors (government, health professions, unions).
Learning Settings: Takes place in various venues such as churches, offices, libraries, and lecture halls.
Chapter Summary Highlights
Pre-elementary programs and school systems vary across Canada, with Quebec differing through its cycle-based system.
Post-secondary Education: Universities focus on research/knowledge, whereas colleges focus on job-related skills.
Governance Structures: Universities often adopt bicameral governance, while colleges are governed by boards.
Private vs. Public: Private and public post-secondary institutions differ in terms of funding and governance.
Aboriginal Post-secondary Choices: Aboriginal students have specific post-secondary options including First Nations community colleges and universities.