David Lyon Postmodern Religion.
1. What 3 features of postmodern society does Lyon see as changing the nature of religion?
According to David Lyon, the three key features of postmodern society that are changing the nature of religion are:
Globalisation
The increased importance of the media
The growth of consumerism
2. What does Lyon mean when he says religious ideas have ‘disembedded’ and religion is ‘de-institutionalised’?
Disembedded: This means the media lifts religious ideas out of physical churches and relocates them to a different place and time.
De-institutionalised: As a result of being disembedded, religion becomes detached from its traditional place within religious institutions, floating instead in cyberspace as a cultural resource that individuals can adapt for their own personal purposes.
3. Explain Lyon’s view that religion has ‘relocated’ to the sphere of consumption
Postmodern society is defined by the growth of consumerism and the idea that people construct their identities through what they choose to consume.
Instead of signing up for a single, binding religious tradition, individuals act as "religious consumers".
People can "pick and mix" elements from various faiths to suit their individual tastes and identity, changing them whenever something more attractive or fashionable comes along.
4. Explain how Lyon believes that the emergence of ‘self-religions’ and the New Age are leading to a ‘re-enchantment’ of the world.
Lyon challenges traditional secularisation theory and Weber's prediction that the world would become entirely rationalised and disenchanted.
Instead, he argues we are in a period of re-enchantment driven by a massive growth in unconventional beliefs, practices, and spirituality.
New Age practices function as "self-religions" because they reject traditional external authority, duty, and obedience, focusing instead on a journey of personal development, autonomy, and connecting with one's "inner self’'.
Religion in a global context
Religious fundamentalism
Cultural defence
Religion and development
Religious fundamentalism
The characteristics of fundamentalism
Fundamentalists appeal to tradition and often look back to a supposed golden age in the past. They seek a return to the basics of fundamentals of their faith.
Fundamentalism arises where traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged by modern society and especially by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy.
Overview of Fundamentalism
Fundamentalists reject modern society and look back to a supposed golden age, seeking the absolute basics or fundamentals of their faith in response to perceived threats from outside (such as globalization and Western culture) or inside (such as liberal attitudes).
Key Characteristics of Fundamentalism
An Authoritative Sacred Text: Fundamentalists treat their holy texts as completely literal, inerrant, and unquestionable. They view historical accounts like the Virgin Birth as absolute facts rather than metaphors, and they refuse to engage in rational argument about them.
An 'Us and Them' Mentality: Fundamentalists isolate themselves from the wider world and refuse to compromise, seeking to establish "islands of certainty" against social and cultural chaos.
Aggressive Reaction: Because they view modern culture as corrupted, fundamentalist movements react aggressively to defend their beliefs. Their actions are often designed to shock, intimidate, or cause harm under the direction of strict authorities like clergy or elders.
Use of Modern Technology: Paradoxically, despite strongly opposing modern secularism and permissiveness, fundamentalists readily use modern tools—such as the internet, computers, televangelism, and military weaponry—to advance their aims.
Patriarchy: According to Hawley (1994), fundamentalism enforces strict patriarchal control over women's sexuality, reproductive powers, and fixed social and economic roles.
Prophecy: Fundamentalists often map biblical prophecies directly onto modern-day events, believing that the "last days" are near and that the faithful will be resurrected before Satan is ultimately defeated in the War of Armageddon.
Conspiracy Theories: They are frequently drawn to the idea that powerful, hidden, and evil forces control human destiny, which sometimes manifests as anti-Semitic conspiracy theories claiming that Jewish people are conspiring for world domination.
Fundamentalism and modernity- Gidens- cosmopolitanism
Late modern society in the west has become secularised and is characterised by cosmopolitanism. This is characterized by:
Tolerance: (due to constant exposure to new values and ideas)
Reflexivity (we reflect on and modify beliefs in the light of new information and make conscious choices about who we want to be )
Rational argument (Used to justify beliefs to themselves and others)
Open mindedness and dialogue
Relinace on experts
In cosmopolitan society traditional norms decline
Family deviersity (instead of traditional nuclear family)
Negioated gender roles (instead of segregated gender roles)
Freedom to choose- Sexuality, singlehood, cohabitation, abort e.t.c
Spirituality emphasizes personal meaning and self improvement (rather than submission to authority)
Globalisation means the cosmopolitanism is exported to other parts of the world. (Through satellite Tv, film, the internet, global trade and tourism.
Fundamentalism is a reaction to cosmopolitanism spread by globalisation
A return to the basics of fundamentals of the faith
A literal take on scripture
Intolerance
Close mindedness
Dogma
Irrationality
Islamic Fundamentalism- see themselves as saviours and moral guardians of their societies. They are a chosen few who must restore true religion in an immoral and decadent society which has abandoned God’s will into practice in line with a literal reading of Quran- the Muslim bible(An-NA ‘im, 2003)
The iranian revolution- In 1920s and 30s the shah/ ruler of Iran felt traditional islamic culture was holding back the modernisation of his country. He introduced a western curriculam into schools, secular (non religious) laws into courts and invited western companies into Iran to develop and industry. The development of oil industry brought considerable wealth to a small elite, while leaving leaving the mass population in poverty.
1970’s parts of Iran, particularly the capital Tehran, were becoming increasingly westernised with bars, cinemans, discos, nightclubs and western dress, food, music and films. Many people represented both the wealthy elite and the influence of the west.
The ayatollahs are religious leaders who blamed the poverty of the masses on the decline of islam and on western influence. They saw the solution as a result to a truly islamic society based on the Quran and a rejection of western capitalism and western ways. This whould cure the disease of ‘westoxfication’ and restore gods way of living.
Westoxification- Islam was defeated by its own rulers, who ignored divine law, in the name of western-style secularism. The west captured the imagination of large sections of our people. And that conquest was far more disastrous for Islam than any loss of territory. It is not for the loss of Andalusia ( a reference to the Moors being driven out of spain) that we ought to weep every evening- although that remains a bleeding wound. Far greater in the loss of sections of our youth to western ideology, dress music and food.
An iranian women- Once we thought western society hgad all the answers for succesfull, fruitful living. If we had followed the lead of the west we whould have progress. Now we see that this isnt true. They are sick societies, even their crime and promiscuisty. Russia is worse. Who wants to be like that? we have to remember God. Look God has blessed saudia Arabia. That is because they have tried to follow the islamic law. And America, with all its loose society, is all problems.
Evaluation- Jeff Haynes
We shouldn’t focus narrowly on the idea that Islamic fundamentalism is a rejection against globalisation.
The failure of local elites to deliver on their promises to improve the standard of living are important too- often fuel that drives fundamentalism.
Bruce- Monotheism and Fundamentalism
Bruce agrees with Giddens that the main cause of fundamentalism is the perception of religious traditions that today’s globalising world threatens their beliefs. The changes may come from outside or within the society.
Changes from Outside- (Through capitalist globalisation, the penetration of western culture or military invasion.
Changes from within- When sections of society adopt new secular ideas such as ilberal attitudes to sexuality and gender)
Secular fundamentalism — Davie
Explain what Davie her supporters mean by secular fundamentalism and what has it caused it. Give 2 examples to illustrate.
Meaning of Secular Fundamentalism
According to Davie (2013), secular fundamentalism represents a rigid response to the uncertainties and loss of faith in traditional Enlightenment secular ideologies (such as liberalism and rationalism) caused by processes like globalisation.
Attacking Religious Certainties: As secular ideologies struggle for survival, supporters of secular fundamentalism attack religious certainty.
Exclusion of Religion: Davie argues that both religious and secular fundamentalist movements arise because believers feel threatened. Secular fundamentalists maintain that religion must be kept out of the secular public sphere.
Legitimating Exclusion: Ansell (2000) notes that this approach uses the language of universal human rights, equality, and social cohesion while actually denying fundamental rights to minority cultures and justifying their exclusion.
What It Has Caused (2 Examples)
Banning Religious Symbols and Veils in French Schools (2004 & 2010):
In 2004, France made it illegal for students to wear conspicuous religious symbols in state schools.
In 2010, France banned the wearing of the full-face veil (niqab) in public spaces.
Rationale/Consequence: Perceived religious challenges to liberal secular values provoked this secular fundamentalist reaction. While framed under the grounds that all pupils must be treated equally and that religion must remain private, it restricts religious expression.
Refusing Alternative Halal/Non-Pork School Meals (2015):
In 2015, French local councils controlled by right-wing political parties stopped offering non-pork alternatives in school lunches.
Rationale/Consequence: The decision was justified on the grounds that all pupils must be treated equally and that state institutions should not cater to specific religious dietary requirements. Ansell (2000) highlights how this discriminates against Muslims and Jews who do not eat pork.
. Huntington’s View and 2 Criticisms
Samuel Huntington’s View
Religion as the Source of Conflict: Huntington (2002, 2004) argues that since the collapse of communism in 1989, religious differences have become the primary source of global conflict rather than political ideology.
Seven Main Civilisations: He identifies seven main civilisations: Western, Islamic, Latin American, Confucian (China), Japanese, Hindu, and Slavic-Orthodox. Each has a common cultural background and history, tightly linked to a major religion.
'Us and Them' Dynamics: Globalisation reduces nation-states' importance while increasing contact between civilisations, creating identity gaps filled by religion and creating hostile "us and them" relationships over economic and military power.
West vs. Islam: Huntington frames history as a struggle of "progress against barbarism," viewing the West under threat from Islam and urging the West to reassert its identity as a liberal-democratic Christian civilisation.
Two Criticisms of Huntington's View
Jackson (2006) – Orientalism and Misrepresentation:
Jackson argues that Huntington’s work is an example of orientalism—a Western ideology that stereotypically portrays Eastern nations and peoples (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior, or fanatical "Others". This framing serves to justify Western exploitation and human rights abuses.
Casanova (2005) – Ignoring Internal Divisions:
Casanova argues that Huntington ignores significant religious divisions within the civilisations he identifies, such as the major internal division between Sunni and Shia Islam.
(Additional criticisms available in the text include Horrie and Chippindale (2007), who note that Huntington falsely portrays all 1.5 billion Muslims as enemies when only a tiny minority are interested in a "holy war," and Karen Armstrong (2001, 2015), who argues hostility stems from aggressive Western foreign policy rather than Islamic fundamentalism itself.)
2. The "Real Clash of Civilisations" (Norris & Inglehart)
According to Norris and Inglehart (2011), using data from the World Values Survey:
Agreement on Democracy: The central divide between the Western world and the Muslim world is not democracy. Support for democratic principles is high in both Western and Muslim societies.
The Real Divide (Gender and Sexuality): The true clash of values concerns gender equality and sexual diversity/gay rights.
Differing Values: While Western attitudes toward divorce, abortion, gender equality, and gay rights have become increasingly liberal over recent decades, traditional attitudes persist in the Muslim world.
Conclusion: Norris and Inglehart conclude that these divergent moral and cultural values regarding self-expression, gender, and sexuality constitute the real clash of civilisations between Muslim societies and the West.
Bruce- Cultural Defence
Where religion serves to unite a community against an external threat by symbolising the society’s collective identity.
1. Poland (Soviet Communist Rule)
The External Threat: From 1945 to 1989, Poland was under communist rule imposed externally by the Soviet Union.
Role of Religion: Although the Catholic Church was suppressed, it embodied Polish national identity and became a central rallying point for opposition against the communist party.
Outcome: The Church actively supported the Solidarity free trade union movement in the 1980s, which helped bring down communism, allowing the Church to regain its public role and political influence.
2. Iran (Western Imperialism and Forced Modernisation)
The External Threat: Western capitalist powers (and oil companies) heavily influenced Iran, including backing the illegal overthrow of a democratic government in the 1950s to install the Shah. The Shah later forced rapid, top-down modernisation and Westernisation (banning the veil, replacing the Muslim calendar, and widening the economic gap), ruthlessly suppressing protest.
Role of Religion: Because changes were imposed rapidly and caused great suffering, Islam became the primary vehicle for resistance against the Shah's regime.
Outcome: Led by clerics like Ayatollah Khomeini, the 1979 Islamic Revolution established the Islamic Republic, putting clerics in state power to enforce Islamic Sharia law. (Note: Haynes argues this revolution was unique because unlike other Middle Eastern countries where religious leaders were tied to local Western-backed elites, Iran's leaders were opposed to Western imperialism).