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Definition: Ethnicity is determined by cultural similarities among members of a group and differences from others. Members define themselves through shared beliefs, values, customs, and norms arising from a common background.
Interethnic relations: These relations are crucial in studying nations and regions, particularly due to the rise of migration and refugee movements (Marger, 2015; Parrillo, 2016, 2019).
American Ethnic Groups: The U.S. Census Bureau estimates provide detailed racial/ethnic demographics, with white non-Hispanics being the largest group (60.1%) in 2019, followed by Hispanics (18.5%) and Black Americans (13.4%).

Racial/ethnic identity is constructed around various factors such as language, religion, historical experiences, kinship, and sometimes 'race'. It comprises collective names, beliefs in common descent, a sense of solidarity, and association with a territory.
Status and Identity: Individuals often identify with multiple groups and negotiate their social identities in complex societies like the U.S. and Canada.
- Ascribed vs. Achieved Status: Ascribed statuses (e.g., race, gender) are assigned at birth, while achieved statuses arise from individual actions and choices (e.g., being a professor or a parent).
- Context-dependent Identity: Individuals may shift ethnic self-identification based on context, illustrating the situational negotiation of social identity (e.g., identifying as Cuban vs. Latino).

Hispanic Labeling: This category encompasses a diverse range of individuals from various backgrounds, and distinctions exist among groups based on national origins and socioeconomic factors.
Demographics: The Hispanic population in the U.S. is notably younger than the national average with diverse roots encompassing Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and more. Their growth has been significant, increasing their share from 35.2 million in 2000 to 60.7 million by 2019.
Asian American Demographics: Comprising over 23 million people tracing their ancestry to over 20 countries, Asian Americans show a high rate of diversity, with Chinese and Indian Americans being the largest groups.

Definition: Minority groups occupy subordinate positions within social hierarchies, often characterized by differences in power and wealth relative to majority groups.
Economic Indicators: There are significant disparities in poverty rates and income levels among racial/ethnic groups, with non-Hispanic white and Asian Americans experiencing lower poverty rates compared to Hispanic and Black Americans.
Inequality and the Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated existing disparities, highlighting vulnerabilities among minority populations.

Race vs. Ethnicity: Race is often mistakenly thought to have a biological basis, but it is generally understood as a cultural category without scientific validity. Racial distinctions are socially constructed and vary across cultures.
Historical Perspectives: Early scientific attempts to classify humans racially have largely been abandoned in favor of a more nuanced understanding of human biological variation that focuses on identifiable traits rather than simplistic racial categories.
Skin Color Variation: Natural selection plays a key role in skin color variation, demonstrating that skin color is an adaptive trait linked to environmental factors, particularly ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Hypodescent: American tradition assigns children of mixed-race parents to the minority group, regardless of their heritage; this phenomenon is termed hypodescent.
Census Practices: The U.S. Census Bureau collects data on race and ethnicity, with operational distinctions that underscore the political implications of these categorizations.

Japan: Japan is viewed as racially homogeneous, but it includes significant minority groups. Cultural mechanisms discourage assimilation, leading to discrimination against non-majority groups.
Brazil: Unlike the rigid classifications in the U.S. and Japan, Brazil features more fluid racial categories that allow individuals to negotiate their racial identity based on phenotype and social context.

The chapter highlights how ethnicity and race are constructed and perceived in society. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for addressing issues of identity, discrimination, and social stratification in contemporary culture.