African Nationalism Study Notes

Core Definitions and Perspectives on Nationalism

• African Nationalism: Defined specifically as a patriotic sentiment and activity focused on two primary goals:
      - The creation of a nation.
      - The attainment of independent statehood.
• European Nationalism: Historically, this has been an expression of the desire of communities to have an independent, sovereign existence within their own political organizations (states). This desire is rooted in:
      - Acceptance of common cultural identities.
      - A shared historical past.
• Nation-States: Based on the historical examples of Greece, Italy, and Germany, nationalist movements in Europe typically resulted in the emergence of nation-states.
• The Nature of African Nationalism: Unlike European movements centered on pre-existing politico-cultural units seeking to assert themselves, African nationalism is often characterized as a movement of racially-conscious modernists. Their goal is to construct new political and cultural nationalities out of heterogeneous populations living within artificial boundaries created by European colonial powers.

Types of Nationalism

• Civic Nationalism: A form of nationalism where the state derives its political legitimacy from the active participation of its citizenry. Legitimacy is measured by the degree to which the state represents the will of its people.
• Ethnic Nationalism: This type defines the nation specifically in terms of ethnicity. It fundamentally includes elements of descent from previous generations.
• Ultra-nationalism: Characterized as a zealous form of nationalism that involves extremist support for one’s own nationalist ideals.
• Diaspora Nationalism: This involves members of a Diaspora who no longer reside in their ethnic or national homelands but continue to maintain and express their nationalist feelings.
• Anti-colonial Nationalism: A reaction specifically from Africans and Asians against being subdued by foreign powers. Historical sites of this nationalism include:
      - Nigeria
      - India
      - Ghana
      - Democratic Republic of Congo
      - Malawi (formerly known as Nyasaland)
      - Ceylon (now known as Sri-Lanka)

Categories and Historical Context of African Nationalism

• African Nationalism is categorized into three distinct groups:
      - Primary Resistance: Resistance to the initial imposition of colonial rule (African Nationalism before formal colonization).
      - Post-pacification/Secondary Revolts: Reactions against specific colonial administrative actions. This category includes nativistic or messianic movements associated with Christian missionaries.
      - Modern Nationalist Movements: Movements that struggled specifically for self-government.
• Pre-colonial Nationalism: Historically, African nationalism predates the arrival of Europeans. Coherent, organized African communities possessed a strong sense of identity and were prepared to defend their cultural and territorial integrity. Examples of such resistance include:
      - The Ashanti people of Ghana.
      - The Hehe of Tanzania.
      - The Zulus of South Africa.
• Classic Examples of Resistance Leaders:
      - The Nama people (Modern Namibia): A leader told German colonizers: “The Lord has established various kingdoms in the world. Therefore I know and believe that it is no sin or crime that I should wish to remain the independent chief of my land and people.”
      - The Mossi people (Burkina Faso): The king told a French captain: “I know the whites wish to kill me in order to take my country, and yet you claim that they will help me to organize my country. But I find my country good just as it is. I have no need of them. I know what is necessary for me and what I want. I have my own merchants. . . . Also consider yourself fortunate that I do not order your head to be cut off. Go away now, and above all, never come back.”

Factors Accounting for the Growth of African Nationalism

• Colonial Oppression: Africans developed a hatred for colonial masters due to several factors:
      - Forced labor.
      - Over-taxation.
      - Land alienation.
      - Racial discrimination.
      - Forced cultivation of cash crops.
• Missionary Churches and Education: This had dual consequences:
      - It provided Africans with the skills needed to articulate demands and question the legitimacy of colonial authorities.
      - It served as a medium for the acculturation of Western Christian and political values, which Africans ingeniously incorporated into political debates for freedom.
• Results of the Two World Wars:
      - Africans were trained in firearm usage.
      - The wars exposed the military weakness of white soldiers.
      - Africans were exposed to democratic ideas through contact with American soldiers.
      - Economic Coercion: African resources were diverted to the war effort; Africans were forced to produce food for Europe while facing shortages themselves.
• Pan-Africanism: Focused on the common heritage of people of African descent and the duty to work for the mutual interest of one another. A key moment was the $1945$ Manchester Conference chaired by W.E.B. Du Bois.
• International Organizations: The League of Nations and the United Nations (UN) provided a platform for the international community to condemn colonialism and support those struggling for freedom.

Modern Nationalist Movements and Social Composition

• The groups involved in modern movements were heterogeneous and included:
      - Professional Groups: Consisting of lawyers and doctors, often allied with contractors and wealthy merchants.
      - Petty Bourgeoisie: Consisting of teachers, clerks, and small merchants.
      - Westernized Africans: The immediate beneficiaries of “Africanization” in top government positions post-independence.
      - Urban Workers: Those interested in improving wages and working conditions through trade unions.
      - Informal Sector: Small shopkeepers, petty traders, and hawkers.
      - Cash Crop Farmers: A powerful segment of African society, some of whom were very wealthy.
      - Peasant Farmers: The group growing the majority of the nation's food. Their concerns focused on market prices in urban areas and exorbitant fees for veterinary services like cattle dips.

Political Independence and Decolonization Approaches

• Timeline of Political Independence:
      - Liberia: $1847$
      - South Africa: $1910$, $1931$, $1961$, or $1994$
      - Egypt: $1922$
      - Ethiopia: $1941$
      - Ghana: $1957$
• Approaches to Decolonization: The presence or absence of European settlers was the primary factor determining the rate and pattern of decolonization.
      - Absence of Settlers: Colonizing powers were generally favorable toward the idea of African self-government. Examples include:
          - Gold Coast (Ghana): In February $1951$, Kwame Nkrumah won a landslide victory in general elections while in prison. The colonial authority subsequently asked him to form a government, leading to independence.
          - Nigeria, Uganda, and Cameroon: Followed similar patterns due to few or no settlers.
      - Presence of Settlers: Decolonization was usually marked by violent conflict between Africans and Europeans. Examples include:
          - Kenya: Involved the Mau Mau or Land and Freedom army.
          - Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).

Homework and Extended Analysis

• Research Task: Analyze the argument that the presence or absence of European settlers influenced the rate and pattern of decolonization. Provide at least $3$ additional examples to support or challenge this thesis.