Political and Social History of Mid-16th to Mid-19th Century Ethiopia

The Eastern States: Harar, Afar, and Somali

• The Sultanate of Harar     - Origin and Foundation: Following the defeat of Ifat by the Christian kingdom in $1332$, the ruling family retreated and established the Sultanate of Adal around $1380$. Harar served as the political center of the Sultanate of Adal until the sixteenth century.     - External Pressure and the Jegol Wall: The Sultanate was eventually reduced to the walled town of Harar due to Oromo expansion. Following the death of Imam Ahmed, Emir Nur Mujahid reorganized the Muslims of Adal.     - Key Conflicts: In $1559$, Emir Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in the Awash valley. Despite this victory, Oromo forces reached the Harar area, forcing the Emir to return and defend the territory.     - The Jegol Wall: Built between the $13th$ and $16th$ centuries, this wall served as a protective barrier for the city, which is historically considered the "fourth holy city" of Islam.     - The Harari Emirate: After the Walasma rulers moved to Aussa, an independent local Harari dynasty was established in the mid-$17th$ century by Emir Ali Ibn Dawd (r. $1647-1662$). Harar served as a capital from $1520-1568$ and became an independent emirate in the $17th$ century.     - Cultural and Economic Significance: Harar was a major center for Islamic studies since the $14th$ century and controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. It acted as a hub between the coast and the interior highlands.     - Later History: Harar was occupied by the Egyptians for approximately a decade starting in $1875$. Emir Abdullahi later revived the dynasty before Harar was incorporated into Menelik's Empire in $1887$ after the Battle of Chelanqo.

• The Afar Sultanates     - Geographic Context: The Afar people reside in the "Afar Triangle," which encompasses Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Djibouti. This region is strategically important, rich in natural resources, and considered a cradle of human history for archaeological studies.     - Lifestyle and Economy: Historically, the Afar were farmers in the highlands before transitioning to a pastoral lifestyle. They traded through the ports of Adulis, Zula, Obok, and Tajura.     - The Salt Trade: The Afar region provided Ethiopia's bulk salt supply. Rock salt, known as amole, served as both a resource and a currency for a long duration.     - Political Structure: The territory was organized into a confederation of sultanates, including Aussa, Bidu, Gobaad, Tadjoura, and Rahayito.     - The Sultanate of Aussa:         - Initially ruled by local Afar chiefs (Sultans).         - The Walasma rulers of Adal moved the capital from Harar to Aussa in $1577$ under Imam Muhammed Ga'as (r. $1573-1583$).         - In $1734$, Sultan Kadafo Hanfarie Aydahis (r. $1733-1790$) of the Mudaito clan established the Mudaito Sultanate, which ruled for $241$ years until Sultan Ali Mirah II ($1944-1974$).     - Other Sultanates: Bidu was second to Aussa in military power. Rahaito is noted as the oldest in the region. Tadjourah was the most urbanized despite its small size.     - Resistance to Foreigners: The Afar were known for resisting external domination by the Ottoman Turks, Egypt, and France. In $1875$, they famously ambushed an Egyptian army led by the Swiss Werner Muzinger.

• The Somali People     - Demographics: The Somali belong to the Eastern Lowland Cushitic language family. They comprised pastoralists, agriculturalists, and traders.     - Governance: The indigenous system was led by a council of elders known as the Guurti.     - Democratic Process: All adult males had equal access to participation in the Guurti. The council decided on resource allocation, marriage, trade, and criminal/civil cases at sub-clan, clan, and inter-clan levels.

The Gondarine Period and the Shift of Political Centers

• Transition of the Capital     - Beginning in the mid-$16th$ century, the Christian Kingdom shifted its political center from the Shewan highlands to the Lake Tana region due to threats from the Adal Sultanate and Oromo movements.     - King Minas (r. $1559-1563$) retreated to lands north of the Abay River. His successors utilized various mobile capitals, such as Denqez, before the establishment of Gondar.

Zemene-Mesafint: The Era of Warlords ($1769-1855$)

• Origins and the Power Struggle in Gondar     - A rivalry emerged between the Wollo and Quara factions. Wollo was represented by Wubit (wife of Iyassu II), and Quara by Itege Mentewab.     - Mentewab attempted to secure military support from the Wollo Oromo through a political marriage between her son, Iyassu II, and Wabi, but this led to the Wollo Oromo gaining excessive political influence.     - To restore order, Mentewab invited Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray to Gondar in $1768$. He commanded a superior army equipped with modern firearms from Red Sea trade.

• The Start of the Era     - In $1769$, Ras Mikael Sehul assassinated King Iyoas after the king ordered him to return to Tigray. This act marked the beginning of the Zemene-Mesafint, where regional lords held actual power over puppet monarchs.

• Political Dynamics     - Ras Mikael was eventually defeated in $1771$ at the Battle of Sarba-Kussa by a coalition of lords from Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta, and Wollo.     - Following his defeat, chaos ensued until Ali Gwangul (Ali I) founded the Yejju Dynasty (also known as the Warra Sheh) in $1786$.

• Objectives of the Warlords     - Expansion of territories for human and material resources.     - Attainment of the title Ras Bitweded to serve as the guardian of the Gondarine court.     - Collection of tribute in the name of the weak monarchs.

• Regional and Religious Conflict     - Significant power bases included Tigray, Semen, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.     - Doctrinal controversies within the Orthodox Tewahedo Church divided the masses along regional lines and weakened the ideological unity of the state.

• Social and Economic Impact     - Peasantry: Suffered heavily; they were forced to feed large armies and roving bandits (shiftas). Farmlands became battlefields, leading to a depression in agricultural production.     - Trade: Long-distance trade was disrupted by war and robbery. Merchants faced heavy taxation at numerous checkpoints.     - Slavery: War captives from feudal conflicts increased the supply of enslaved people for the Arabian market.     - Nationalism: The continuous warfare undermined national power and the sense of national identity.

The Yejju Dynasty

• Establishment: Founded by Ali Gwangul (Ali I) in $1786$, the dynasty dominated northern Ethiopian politics from its center at Debre-Tabor.

• Ras Gugsa (r. $1803-1825$): The most powerful ruler of the dynasty. He used marriage alliances and diplomacy to neutralize northern rivals like Ras Walda Sellase of Indarta and Dejjazmach Sabagadis.

• Succession and Decline     - Gugsa was succeeded by Ras Yemam ($1825-1828$), who defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen in $1826$.     - Battle of May-Aslamay ($1831$): Fought between Ras Marye (Yemam's successor) and Dejjazmach Sabagadis of Tigray. Both leaders were killed, but the Yejju dynasty claimed victory.     - Ras Ali Alula (Ali II) maintained Yejju dominance from $1831-1853$.     - The era ended with the rise of Kasa Hailu of Qwara, who fought between the $1840s$ and $1855$ to unify the region.

The Kingdom of Shewa

• Isolation and Autonomy: While northern Ethiopia was embroiled in the Zemene-Mesafint, Shewa isolated itself. This allowed the region to avoid the destruction of continuous warlordism.

• Foundation: Established in the area of Manz at the end of the $17th$ or early $18th$ century by a local chief named Negasi.

• The Peak of Shewan Power: The kingdom reached its heyday under Nigus Sahle Sellase (r. $1813-1847$).     - He centralized the government at Ankober.     - He maintained law and order, which encouraged visits from foreign travelers.     - He established independent diplomatic relations with Great Britain and France.