Chapter Seven: The Impact of Urban and Industrial Growth in Canada

Timeline of Urban and Industrial Growth in Canada

• 1872: Trade Union Act passed.

• 1879: Provincial Workmen's Association for coal miners in Nova Scotia founded.

• 1883: Founding of the Trades and Labor Congress of Canada (TLC).

• 1889: Royal Commission on the Relations of Labour and Capital issues report.

• 1892: Criminal Code outlaws contraceptives.

• 1894: Labour Day established as a national holiday.

• 1897: Herbert Ames publishes City Below the Hill, a sociological study of Montreal.

• 1900: Department of Labour established.

• 1905: Founding of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) or "Wobblies".

• 1907: The Industrial Disputes Investigation Act passed.

• 1908: The Fishermen's Protective Union founded in Newfoundland by William Ford Coaker.

• 1913: Publication of John MacDougall's Rural Life in Canada: Its Trends and Tasks; Ontario Housing Act passed.

• 1914: Workmen’s Compensation Act passed in Ontario.

• 1917: The Order of Sleeping Car Porters formed, the first African-Canadian railway union in North America.

Industrialization and Urbanization in Canada

• Industrialization and urbanization significantly transformed Canadian life.

  • Migration of younger members of farm families into towns and cities for work.

  • Transition of farming from a subsistence activity to a business model.

  • Machinery replaced manual labor, leading to routine tasks in agriculture.

• Migration altered northern regions; First Nations faced competition, particularly with industries like lumbering, mining, and hydroelectric power.

  • Traditional practices like fur trading began to decline.

Urban Problems

• Urban areas faced challenges due to rural migration and immigration:

  • Poverty

  • Overcrowding

  • Disease

  • Poor health and hygiene

• Industrialization cemented a strict class system, resulting in:

  • Workers laboring in factories or substandard offices for low wages and long hours.

  • Women and working-class children particularly affected, facing job inequality.

• The average workday transformed from natural light to timed schedules.

  • Spaces segregated by gender: public (work) vs. private (home).

Social Services and Organizations

• Amid difficult conditions, many turned to churches, charitable institutions, clubs, and unions for support:

  • These provided camaraderie and aimed toward improved wages and conditions.

• The rise of worker organization alarmed the elite, fearing class conflict.

• Although the standard of living improved by 1914,

  • Persistent social and gender inequalities remained.

  • Reformers aimed to address these issues.

Impact on Rural Society

• Pre-industrialization, the family farm was stable and self-sufficient:

  • Produced food for consumption and sale of surplus.

  • Farms were often passed down through generations.

• Shift caused by industrialization:

  • Introduction of mechanization (e.g., tractors) allowed greater land cultivation.

  • Example: A mechanical hay mower could cut 10 acres (4 hectares) a day, compared to manual methods.

  • Farmers required increased revenue to sustain expensive machinery.

  • Emergence of large-scale agribusiness, especially in dairy and fruit.

• Enhanced rail and steamship services allowed farmers to export produce abroad.

Changes in Work Practices

• Work became more routine and specialized:

  • Men took over roles traditionally considered women's work, such as dairying.

  • Industrialization shifted tasks from home to factories.

• Shift in familial roles and relationships, changing responsibilities across genders and generations.

  • Youth began to leave farms for urban jobs, resulting in rural depopulation concerns.

  • Social commentator John MacDougall cautioned about the negative impacts of fading rural populations.

Impact on First Nations People

• Late 19th-century perceptions of First Nations as 'dying' races led to misguided government interventions:

  • Treaties established reserves for Indigenous peoples to assimilate into white society.

  • Government policies promoted cultural assimilation through education and agriculture.

  • The stereotypes of Indigenous people became negative and derogatory.

• Competing interests in the fishing industry led to loss of traditional roles and jobs.

  • Non-Indigenous immigrants often replaced First Nations people in fishing and processing roles.

• Changes in fur trade dynamics due to new companies emerged, compromising traditional economies.

• Federal and provincial policies ignored Indigenous commercial and ceremonial rights.

Life in the Industrial City

• Urban centers became marked by physical and social stratification:

  • Separation of working-class districts from middle and upper classes.

  • Historically mixed neighborhoods transformed into exclusive enclaves for wealthier residents due to urban mobility.

• Industrial smoke and poor conditions contributed to health and sanitation issues, making cities undesirable:

  • Quote from Commission of Conservation: Highlights industrial impacts on urban life.

• Working-class families often resided in cramped conditions, paying high rent for minimal space.

• Overcrowding emerged, contributing to sanitation and health crises in urban settings.

Changes in Gender Roles and Family Dynamics

• Gender relations shifted, with traditional roles increasingly defined:

  • Males became the primary earners, reinforcing patriarchal structures in households.

  • Domestic responsibilities remained primarily with women and children, often leading to exploitation.

• Increased existence of child labor as families struggled economically:

  • Many children skipped schooling to contribute to income, entering markets at ages 11 or 12.

• Statutory limitations on child labor existed but were poorly enforced.

Health Challenges

• Health conditions worsened due to urban living:

  • High rates of infant mortality; Montreal ranked poorly in the world.

  • Poor sanitation and access to clean water exacerbated health concerns.

• Women's roles in healthcare rose, expected to provide for sick family members.

• Health reformers pitched governmental health measures, leading to the establishment of a Board of Health in 1882.

Employment Dynamics in the Workplace

• Harsh working conditions in factories:

  • Minimum ten-hour workdays, often without safety structures in place.

  • Females and children typically paid less than men for similar labor.

• The post of clerical work emerged as 'women's work', often unrecognized and underpaid:

• Working women generally maintained poor conditions, characterized by high working hours and low pay.

Working Conditions in Factories

• Long hours in low-paid areas subjected workers to dangerous conditions:

  • Workers lacked union protection against profits-driven factory policies.

• Employment wavered based on economic conditions, with frequent layoffs during downturns.

Social Institutions and Supports

• Charitable organizations and churches played crucial roles during this time:

  • Limited aid for those in need, generally seen as personally responsible for their circumstance.

• Social clubs provided emotional support, particularly among skilled workers.

• Labor unions began forming to protect worker’s rights:

  • Early resistance to labor organizations led to conflict with the state.

Unions Response to Workers’ Rights

• Early labor unions arose from industrialization but struggled for legitimacy:

  • Initial refusal from the government to recognize unions as necessary labor entities.

• The 1872 Trade Union Act granted some recognition, albeit limited, to unions.

• Notable unions included Knights of Labor, Provincial Workmen’s Association, and American Federation of Labor.

Barriers and Developments in Labor Activism

• Limited effectiveness of early labor unions due to divisions based on skill, gender, and race:

• The rise of organizations like the IWW emphasized solidarity across trades and pushed radical change efforts:

  • Known as the “Wobblies,” they called for cross-industry unity among workers.

• Canadian labor opportunities were often influenced by larger trends from the U.S. labor movement.

Summary and Conclusions

• By the early 20th century, industrialization transformed Canadian society significantly:

  • While standards of living might have improved overall, social injustices persisted, leading to critical scrutiny from middle-class reformers.

• The ongoing dialogues around gender, class, and race equality within the industrial landscape shaped the development of a diverse and socially complex Canada.