EOD School Kosovo: Land Service Ammunition, Fuzes, and Disposal Techniques Study Notes

LSA Classification and Identification Principles

For identification purposes, Land Service Ammunition (LSA) is characterized by four criteria: - Main Group: The generic classification (Projectiles, Mortars, Rockets, Grenades, Mines, Submunitions, Flares/Pyrotechnics). - Sub Group: Categorization based on chemical or physical properties ( $HE$ , Carrier, or Shot). - Role: The intended effect at the target. - Hazards: The primary and secondary dangers upon functioning.
Sub Group Definitions: - HE (High Explosive): The main explosive filling is High Explosive. - Carrier: The main filling is not $HE$ ; however, this group includes parent munitions containing $HE$ -filled submunitions. - Shot: The projectile or warhead is solid metal, with or without a tracer. This includes hazardous metals such as Depleted Uranium ( $DU$ ).
Role of the HE Sub Group: - Blast/Fragmentation: Combined shockwave and shrapnel effect. - HESH (High Explosive Squash Head): Designed for defeat of armor via scabbing. - APHE/SAP (Armour Piercing High Explosive / Semi Armour Piercing): Designed to penetrate armor before exploding. - HEAT (High Explosive Anti Tank): Utilizes a shaped charge cone. - DP (Dual Purpose): Combines shaped charge ( $HEAT$ ) and fragmentation effects.
Role of the Carrier Sub Group: - Base Ejection: Expels contents from the rear (e.g., Smoke (non- $WP$ ), Incendiary, Chemical (Binary), Illuminating, Submunitions). - Nose Ejection: Expels contents from the front (Commonly Shrapnel/Flechettes for projectiles; similar to base ejection for rockets). - Bursting: Generally involves a canister that ruptures (most common for White Phosphorus ( $WP$ ), but also Red Phosphorus, Titanium Tetrachloride, or Chemical/Incendiary fillings). - Emission: Contents are released via holes or ports (common for Smoke and Lachrymatory smoke/Chemical harassing agents).
Role of the Shot Sub Group: - The role is normally only Armour Piercing unless designated as an inert practice munition. - Variants found primarily in the Projectiles group include: $AP$ , $AP-T$ , $APC-T$ , $APCBC-T$ , $HVAP-T$ , $APHC-T$ , $API$ , $APDS-T$ , $APFSDS-T$ .

LSA Hazard and Disposal Procedures

General Hazards: - HE Sub Group (Role Blast/Frag): Primary hazards are Blast and Fragmentation. - HE Sub Group (Role HESH): Main hazard is Blast; fragmentation is a secondary hazard. - HE Sub Group (Role APHE/SAP): Main hazard is Fragmentation; blast is a secondary hazard. - HE Sub Group (Role HEAT): Main hazard is the Shaped Charge; blast and fragmentation are secondary. - Practice Munition with HE spotting charge: Classified as Sub Group $HE$ ; Role is Practice; Hazards are Blast/Frag.
Carrier Sub Group Hazards: - Base Ejection: Hazards are the contents themselves (Toxic Smoke, Incendiary, Illuminating, Lethal Chemical agents, or Submunitions) plus secondary hazards from the ejection charge and projection of contents. - Nose Ejection: Same hazards as Base Ejection. - Bursting: Main hazard is the contents (e.g., $WP$ , Toxic Smoke, Chemical Agents) plus secondary hazards of Blast/Frag from the bursting charge. - Emission: Hazard is the contents (Smoke/Chemical).
Shot Sub Group Hazards: - Only the Tracer is a hazard unless the shot has a Depleted Uranium ( $DU$ ) core, which is a potential health hazard.
Unfired LSA Hazards: - Propulsive charges/cartridges or propulsive motors in unfired Projectiles, Mortars, Rockets, and Grenades must be considered as hazards.
Methods of Disposal (MOD): - Refers to the positioning of an $HE$ charge to destroy the item. - Sub Group HE (Role HEAT): "Collapse the cone" by placing the charge alongside the item where the copper or steel cone liner is located. - Unfired Rockets: Place a charge on the warhead, at least one charge midway along the rocket motor, and one charge to cut the Venturi.

The Fourteen Keys to Identification

Stenciling: Letters painted on the Explosive Ordnance ( $EO$ ) item.
Stamping: Letters marked by a metal punch.
Hazard Bands: Narrow bands (introduced in NATO markers since the 1960s). Yellow indicates $HE$ or a Burster charge; Brown indicates a Low Explosive hazard (e.g., ejection or propulsive charge).
Colour Codes: Overall colour or wide bands indicating role. In NATO: Black indicates Armour Defeating; Yellow indicates $HE$ (Blast/Frag).
Symbols: Specific icons (e.g., a parachute with a star indicates Para Illum; "CCC" indicates coloured smoke).
Generic Shape: Teardrop shapes in mortars often indicate $HE$ Blast/Frag or Carrier Bursting; long cylindrical shapes in mortars indicate Carrier Ejection.
Method of Propulsion: Cartridge cases indicate projectiles; long motors with Venturi/nozzles indicate rockets.
Size/Dimensions: Large munitions (e.g., $300 \text{ mm wide by } 1.5-2 \text{ m long}$ ) are likely aircraft bombs; small hand-sized items are grenades.
Construction: One-piece body construction often identifies Blast/Frag; two-piece bodies often identify $HEAT$ or Carrier Ejection.
Fuze Location/Type: Nose impact/proximity fuzes indicate $HE$ Blast/Frag; base fuzes indicate $HESH$ or $APHE$ ; time fuzes indicate Carrier Ejection.
Previous Knowledge: Experience of the EOD Operator.
Technical Manuals: References such as CORD (ORDnance data repository).
IMSMA: Information Management System for Mine Action.
Int Chain: Intelligence data regarding $EO$ items common in the operational theater.

Principles of Fuzes

Objective: To teach recognition and principles of $EO$ fuzes for identification and diagnosis of fitted fuzing systems.
Two-Fold Function of a Fuze: 1. Ensures the projectile remains safe during storage, transportation, handling, and firing. 2. Ensures the munition functions only when and as intended.
Fuze Classification: - Assembled Position: Nose or Base. - Means of Initiation: Impact, Time, or Proximity. - Multi-Role (MRF): Uses a combination of initiation methods.
Impact Fuzing: - Can be nose or base positioned. - Usually one-piece construction. - May feature a selector for Super Quick ( $SQ$ ) or Delay ( $D$ ).
Point Initiating Base Detonating (PIBD): - Recognizable features: Nose mounted, small in size, housing usually made of aluminum. - Components: Point initiating element, spacer, detonator, copper cone, outer cone. - Safety Warning: Do not disturb a Piezo-electric firing crystal.
Time Fuzing: - Operates after a pre-selected period. Always nose-fitted to projectiles. - Mechanical Time Fuze (MTF): Features clockwork mechanism; timescale is engraved on the exterior; usually two-piece construction. - Electronic Time Fuze: Features an electronic mechanism; timescale engraved on exterior. - Powder Train Time Fuze (PTF): Combustion-based; timescale on exterior; multiple-piece construction ( $> 2$ ); vent holes on side to release excess gunpowder gases.
Proximity or Variable Time (VT) Fuzing: - Uses Active Radio Frequency ( $RF$ ) or Passive Infra Red ( $IR$ ) for target selection. - Normally used with airburst $HE$ projectiles. - Safety Warning: Movement in front of an Active ( $RF$ ) fuze may cause function; battery life can be approximately four hours; approach from the rear. - Identification: Always nose mounted; nose cap made of plastic, nylon, or fiberglass; main body made of steel.
Multi-Role Fuzes (MRF): - Can operate in proximity and point detonating modes ( $MT/PD$ or $PD/SD$ ). - Identification: Setter contacts present; part of the nose cap made of plastic/nylon.
General Safety Guidelines for Fuzes: - Fuzing must be positively identified. - Never jar, drop, or mishandle. - Never attempt to reset a fuze to an indicated safe position. - Keep fuzes and projectiles separate if found detached. - Exercise extreme caution during transport.

Air Delivered Weapons (ADW)

General Categories: - Aircraft Bombs ( $HE$ , Practice, Incendiary, Containers, Pyrotechnics). - Rockets.
HE Bomb Categorization by Role/Mission: - General Purpose ( $GP$ ): Teardrop or parallel sided; charge/weight ratio is $33-60 \%$ . - Medium Capacity ( $MC$ ): Parallel sided; charge/weight ratio is $50 \%$ . - High Capacity ( $HC$ ): Drum or boiler shaped; charge/weight ratio is $75-80 \%$ . Example: MOAB ( $Massive Ordnance Air Blast$ ) or US Daisy Cutter ( $BLU 82B$ ). - Fragmentation: Charge/weight ratio is $20 \%$ . - Armour Piercing ( $AP$ ): Long and thin; charge/weight ratio is $10-20 \%$ . - Semi Armour Piercing ( $SAP$ ): Teardrop shape; charge/weight ratio is $20-30 \%$ . - Anti-Submarine: Similar to $GP$ but with a flat nose; charge/weight ratio is $60-75 \%$ . - Deep Penetration: Long and streamlined; charge/weight ratio is $50 \%$ . Example: US Massive Ordnance Penetrator ( $MOP$ ) weighing $30,000 \text{ lbs} / 14,000 \text{ kg}$ .
Seven Keys to Identifying ADWs: 1. Tail: WWII Ballistic tails (British, American, German, Japanese) vs. Modern Retarded/Streamlined tails. 2. Suspension: NATO systems are $356 \text{ mm or } 762 \text{ mm}$ apart ( $14 \text{ or } 30 \text{ in}$ ); FSU systems are $250 \text{ mm}$ apart ( $10 \text{ in}$ ). 3. General Shape: Teardrop vs. Parallel sided. 4. Dimensions: Accurate length and diameter measurements. 5. Markings: Colour codes (Yellow = $HE$ , Brown = Low Explosive, Black = Armour Defeating) and Stenciling/Stamping. 6. Fuze Position: Nose, Tail, Transverse, or Multi-Position. 7. Fuze Shape: Provides indication of planned detonation time (Pre-impact, Impact, Post impact).
Bomb Components: Pistols and Fuzes: - Pistols: Contains no explosive content; used with a separate detonator; contains no hazard once removed. - Fuzes: Contains a primary explosive charge incorporated into the device; potentially a secondary booster; hazardous after removal especially if armed. - Safety Features: Built-in features ensure fuzes are safe in storage, safe to handle, safe when fitted, and provide arming delays after release.

Method of Arming and Firing Mechanisms

Methods of Arming: - Mechanical: Rotation of arming vane/spindle/T-bar or withdrawal of an arming pin. - Electrical: Via electrical charge. - Electro-Mechanical: Electrical input produces a mechanical action (e.g., explosive motor/squib). - Combination: Multiple selection of the above.
Functioning Actions: - Impact/Short Delay: Up to $35 \text{ seconds}$ . - Airburst: Time-based after release. - Influence: Proximity based on heat, sound, magnetism, laser, or RF (most common). - Hydrostatic: Based on water depth. - Long Delay: $30 \text{ minutes}$ and over (usually using lead shear or chemical material creep). - Anti-disturbance: Designed to prevent Render Safe Procedures ( $RSP$ ). - Protective: Fitted beneath a pistol/fuze; functions if removed. - Modular Smart: Multi-functional.
Firing Mechanisms: - Direct Action (Nose positioned): Shear wire, compression spring, heat of compression, piezo-electric, electrical-magnetic. - Indirect Action (Tail positioned): Compression spring, retaining plate, heat of compression, cocked striker. - All-Ways Acting (Multi-positional/Transverse): Universal or Multi-ways.

Booby Traps and Switches

Definition: An explosive or non-explosive device deliberately placed to cause casualties when a harmless object is disturbed or a normally safe act is performed.
Tactical Effects: Creates uncertainty/suspicion, lowers morale, induces caution to slow operations, prevents return to normality for civilians.
Types of Booby Traps: - Anti-Personnel: Small charges. - Anti-Vehicle: Large charges. - Delay: Designed with time delays.
Four Parts of a Booby Trap: 1. Switch/Firing Mechanism: Provides safety for the setter and initiation for the detonator. 2. Explosive Charge: Sufficient to kill or injure. 3. Means of Connection: Can be Remote (Det-cord/wire) or Direct. 4. Means of Concealment/Operation: Dependency on locality and materials.
Principles of Booby-Trapping: - The Baited-Trap: Uses an attractive or interesting object. - The Snare: Decoy consisting of two traps; one intended for detection to distract from the active one. - The Bluff: A dummy trap/hoax. - The Double Bluff: Appears to be a bluff or safe to disarm but remains dangerous.
Methods of Operation: - Pull (e.g., M1 Pull Switch). - Pressure (e.g., M1A1 Switch; $20 \text{ lbs}$ threshold). - Release of Pressure (e.g., M1 Release Device). - Release of Tension (e.g., M3 Switch; requires a tightly stretched wire). - Delay (e.g., clockwork timers like the Russian $MUV-4$ ). - Command (e.g., Electrical wire or Radio signal; e.g., $M18A1$ Claymore).

Booby Trap Clearance Procedures

Safety Precautions: - No individual acts alone. - Continuous communication with the team leader via radio. - Rest periods: $5 \text{ minutes}$ rest every $30 \text{ minutes}$ ; $20 \text{ minutes}$ rest every $1.5 \text{ hours}$ . - Building clearance: Always carried out by two-man teams.
Site Layout: - Pulling Point must be a safe distance away. - Control Point ( $CP$ ) should be at least $100 \text{ meters}$ from the target.
Clearance Phases: 1. Reconnaissance: Long range and close range visual checks for disturbed floorboards, sawdust, pins, footprints, or broken locks. 2. Entry: - Detonation Acceptable: Remote opening of windows/doors via hook and line, weight droppers, or small arms. - Detonation Undesirable: Entry through roofs or walls ("mouse hole"). 3. Search: Floors are priority. check solid concrete visually; check hollow floors with a weight dropper. 4. Positive Action: Remote pulling of items through 3 planes. Obstacles/traps pulled from at least $100 \text{ m}$ away.

Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)

Definition: Bombs fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating chemicals designed to kill, destroy, or harass, constructed in ways other than conventional military action.
Differences from Booby Traps: Not built to engineering specs; not subject to standard reliability testing; presence is difficult to identify; easily affected by environmental stressors.
Five Components of an IED: 1. Power Source: Electrical (batteries, capacitors), Mechanical (springs), or Chemical (burning fuze). 2. Switches: Armed by the setter and fired by the victim/timer (Timers, Clothes pegs, Tilt switches, Micro switches, Relays). 3. Initiator: Detonators (High Explosive) or Igniters (Low Explosive). 4. Main Charge: $HE$ (C4, TNT, Dynamite, Slurry), Low Explosive (Gunpowder, Fireworks), Incendiary ( $WP$ , fuels), or $CBRN$ chemicals. 5. Container: Holds components, disguises the device, and aids fragmentation.
Main Charge Chemicals (HME - Home Made Explosive): - Oxidants: Ammonium Nitrate (fertilizer), Calcium Hypochlorite (bleach), Sodium Chlorate (weed killer). - Fuels: Fuel Oil ( $ANFO$ ), Sugar ( $ANS$ ), Nitrobenzene ( $ANNIE$ ), Aluminum ( $ANAL$ ). - Sensitive Compounds: $TATP$ (Triacetone Triperoxide) and $HMTD$ (Hexamethylene Triperoxide Diamine) — extremely sensitive to heat, light, and friction.
Ground Signs Awareness (Indications of IEDs): 1. Disturbed earth or long narrow lines (firing cables). 2. Unusual plant growth (fertilizer effect) or dead vegetation (weed killer effect). 3. Exposed parts of main charge containers. 4. Partly exposed firing cables or det-cord. 5. Discarded electrical tape, batteries, or components. 6. Signs of conflict (IEDs in ambush plans). 7. Tripwires (military or monofilament fishing line). 8. Depressions in the ground from soil compaction. 9. Dismantled electrical equipment (fridges/printers for parts). 10. Small cairns of stones or isolated wooden pickets used as kill-zone markers. 11. Unnatural/unusual objects (fire extinguishers, gas cylinders).

Guided Weapons (GW)

Classification: Classified by Role (defined by platform and target) and Category (defined by performance characteristics).
GW Roles: - Air to Air Missile ( $AAM$ ). - Air to Surface Missile ( $ASM$ ). - Surface to Air Missile ( $SAM$ ). - Surface to Surface Missile ( $SSM$ ).
Four Component Sections: 1. Guidance Section: Tells the control section where to steer (Homing, Command, Pre-Set). 2. Control Section: Steers the weapon using canards or exhaust alteration; power via pneumatics, hydraulics, or batteries. 3. Warhead Section: Payload ( $HE$ , Shaped Charge, Frag, Expanding Rod), Fuze (Contact, Proximity, Self-destruct), and Safe to Arm device ( $SAD$ ). 4. Propulsion Section: Motive power via Air Breathing Engines (Ramjet, Turbojet) or Rocket Motors (Solid or Liquid fuel).
Guidance Types: - Homing: - Semi-Active: Missile relies on external source to illuminate target; intercepts reflected energy. - Active: Missile has its own radar seeker (e.g., AMRAAM). - Passive: Rely on energy transmitted by the target (e.g., Heat Seeking engines/ $IR$ ). - Command: Instructions sent after launch via Wire, Radio, Electro-Optical, or Beam Riding. - Pre-Set: Route programmed before launch; utilizes $GPS$ , Inertial Navigation ( $INS$ ), or Terrain Contour Matching ( $TERCOM$ ).

Explosive Theory

Definition of Explosion: A rapid change from an unstable compound to more stable substances (gases). Energies produced include Heat ( $3000-4000^{\circ}\text{C}$ ), Pressure ( $2-3 \text{ Million PSI}$ ), Light, and Sound.
Types of Explosions: - Combustion: Slow burning ( $< 300 \text{ m/s}$ ) where fuel and oxygen are not in close proximity. - Explosion: Fast internal burning up to $300 \text{ m/s}$ ; contains internal oxidizers. - Detonation: Instantaneous decomposition; shock front travels at $3000-9000 \text{ m/s}$ .
Classification of High Explosives: - Primary HE: Sensitive to shock and friction; used in detonators to initiate less sensitive explosives (e.g., Lead Azide). - Secondary HE: Sub-divided into Primers/Boosters (more sensitive) and Main Charges (insensitive to heat/shock; requires substantial detonation).
The Explosive Train: - Initiator ( $Heat/Shock/Friction$ ) -> Detonator ( $Primary HE; Shock energy$ ) -> Primer/Booster ( $Secondary HE$ ) -> Main Charge ( $Secondary HE; TNT/RDX$ ).
Detonation Categories: - High Order: Complete consumption of explosive material. - Low Order: Partial detonation/deflagration; material remains due to poor contact, deterioration, or inadequate shock. - Sympathetic Detonation: Caused by shock from a nearby detonation.
Shaped Charge Effects: - Munroe Effect (Standard Shaped Charge): Creates a plasma jet with pressure up to $4-5 \times 10^6 \text{ PSI}$ . Design factors: Stand-off ( $3-4 \times$ diameter), 80-degree cone angle, central detonator placement, soft liner material. - Misnay Schardin Effect (Explosively Formed Penetrator / EFP): Concave plate is propelled to form a high-speed "slug" or rod. Can penetrate $4 \text{ inches / } 10 \text{ cm}$ of steel at range.

Low Order Techniques and Tools

Render Safe Procedures (RSP) Options: High Order (Preference), Low Order, Remote Fuze Removal, Fuze Immunization, Hand Removal.
Low Order Techniques: - Round Tom: Explosive removal of the rear base plate/fuze pocket of a bomb using $PE 3A$ or $SX2$ donor discs, followed by filling burnout. - Skylight: Multi-stage attack using CLC ( $Charge Linear Cutting$ ) to weaken a rectangular casing panel, then blowing it out with small charges to expose/ignite the filling. - Baldrick (Ballistic Disc): Uses the Misnay Schardin effect. A $3 \text{ mm}$ copper plate on an aluminum tube filled with $PE 4$ . Creates a slug intended for deflagration (85% probability). Set at $150-200 \text{ mm}$ stand-off. - Vulcan: A shaped charge system with adjustable stand-off legs and nozzles; uses copper or magnesium cones. - ZEUS (Laser Neutralisation): Laser Ordnance Neutralisation System mounted on a HUMVEE. Uses a laser to heat the casing to combustion temperature. Range up to $300 \text{ m}$ . Typical engagement: $3-360 \text{ seconds}$ .
Fuze Neutralization Tools: - Rocket Wrench: Remotely removes fuzes with potential anti-handling features. Uses two $.50 \text{ cal}$ electrical cartridges as rocket motors to spin the fuze out. Includes parallel ("Square") and tapered jaws. - De-Armer: Fires $.50 \text{ cal}$ cartridge-powered projectiles (Bolster, Chisel, or Fork) to shear fuzes from munitions at a $75 \text{ mm}$ stand-off. - De-Bulleting Tool: Used to convert machine gun rounds into power cartridges by removing the bullet without damaging the cartridge neck.
Remote Pulling Setup: - Requires friction/masking/electrical tape, Monofilament, Sash cord, Stake/Bungee cord, Pulley, and Pipe wrenches. - Procedure: Attach bridle to fuze with tape; wrap cord in unscrewing direction ( $> 12 \text{ turns}$ ); attach bungee for extraction tension; side step pull at safe distance.

Questions & Discussion

Question: What does PIBD stand for?
Answer: Point Initiating Base Detonating.
Question: What are the two positions a fuze can be fitted to LSA?
Answer: Nose or Base.
Question: What are the two main functions of a fuze?
Answer: 1. Safe handling/storage. 2. Functioning the munition as intended.
Question: If a proximity fuze is suspected, from where should it be approached?
Answer: From the rear.
Question: What are the three main types of power sources used in IEDs?
Answer: Electrical, mechanical, and chemical.
Question: What are the eight fuze functioning actions?
Answer: Impact/short delay, Airburst, Influence, Hydrostatic, Long Delay, Anti-Disturbance, Protective, Modular/smart.
Question: What are the four principals of booby-trapping?
Answer: Baited-trap, Snare, Bluff, Double-bluff.
Question: What are the typical distances between suspension lugs for NATO bombs?
Answer: $35-75\text{ cm}$ ( $14-30\text{ inches}$ ).
Question: What is the "Golden Rule" of Low Order Technique?
Answer: Never attempt a low order technique if a detonation is unacceptable.