Comprehensive Biology Final Review Notes

Low Power: Field diameter = $4500 \, \mu m$
Medium Power: Field diameter = $2000 \, \mu m$
High Power: Field diameter = $500 \, \mu m$
Actual Size Calculation:
- Formula: $\text{Actual Size} = \frac{\text{Field Diameter}}{\text{Number of Specimens Across}}$
- Example: If 5 specimens fit across a $2000 \, \mu m$ field, then $\text{Actual Size} = \frac{2000 \, \mu m}{5} = 400 \, \mu m$
Magnification Calculation:
- Formula: $\text{Magnification} = \frac{\text{Drawing Size}}{\text{Actual Size of Specimen}}$
- Example: If a drawing is 11.9 cm, convert to 119 mm, then to $119,000 \, \mu m$ . If the actual size is calculated as $125 \, \mu m$ , then $\text{Magnification} = \frac{119000 \, \mu m}{125 \, \mu m} = 952$
Conversion of Units:
- Example: Convert $5600 \, \mu m$ to cm.
- $5600 \, \mu m \times \frac{1 \, m}{1,000,000 \, \mu m} \times \frac{100 \, cm}{1 \, m} = 0.56 \, cm$

PHMPOAC:
- Problem
- Hypothesis
- Materials
- Procedure
- Observation
- Analysis
- Conclusion
Control Group: No changes, receives a placebo.
Experimental Group: One variable is changed.
Independent Variable: What is being changed (e.g., amount of water, music, temperature, light).
Dependent Variable: How the change is measured (e.g., the height, the smell, the growth).

MCRErGLVPC (Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Ribosome, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi, Lysosome, Vacuole, Plastid, Centriole)
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse (Plants & Animals)
- Chloroplast: Chemical energy production (Plants)
- Ribosome: Protein synthesis (Plants & Animals)
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports materials (Plants & Animals)
- Golgi: Modifies proteins (Plants & Animals)
- Lysosome: Breaks down food (Plants & Animals)
- Vacuole: Stores materials (Plants & Animals)
- Plastid: Stores food for plants (Plants)
- Centriole: Involved in cell division (Animals)

Photosynthesis: Green plants convert light into carbohydrates.
Cellular Respiration: Reaction that releases ATP (energy) from food using $O_2$ .
Fermentation: Lactic Acid Fermentation or Alcoholic Fermentation.

Passive Transport:
- Diffusion: High to low concentration (e.g., $O<em>2$ , $CO</em>2$ , $H_2O$ ).
- Osmosis: Water movement causing cells to shrink and die.
- Facilitated Diffusion: High to low concentration through a protein channel.
Active Transport:
- Molecular Transport: Requires energy, uses a protein pump.
- Vesicular Transport:
  - Endocytosis: Into the cell.
    - Phagocytosis: "Eat".
    - Pinocytosis: "Drink".
  - Exocytosis: Out of the cell.

Darwin: "Organisms have changed over time."
Fitness: Ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on genes.
Principle of Common Descent: All organisms share common ancestors.
Adaptation:
- Structural (e.g., skin color, shape, body).
- Biochemical (e.g., venom, slime).
- Behavioral (e.g., response to light/environment).
Survival of the Fittest: Well-suited to their environment and produce a lot of offspring.

Organisms evolved from unicellular ( $3.8$ bya) to multicellular forms ( $1$ bya).
Simple cells (Prokaryotes) joined to make complex cells (Eukaryotes).
Heterotrophs came first, then autotrophs evolved and made their own food using sunlight/chemicals.

Viruses:
- Non-living
- No cell structure
- DNA/RNA
- Capsid
- Depend on a host to reproduce or invade living cells (e.g., Flu, COVID, HIV, cold).
Bacteria:
- Living
- Single-celled
- Have cell walls, membranes, and cytoplasm
- Reproduce by binary fission (e.g., strep throat, tuberculosis, urinary tract infection).

Bacteria:
- PROS: Help digestion, make vitamins, used in medicine.
- CONS: Cause infections, food spoilage.
Viruses:
- PROS: Help in vaccines and gene therapy.
- CONS: Cause diseases, spread easily, hard to treat.

Non-vascular: Algae, Mosses = don’t have vessels to transport water & nutrients.
Vascular: Ferns, Seeds, Cones, Flowers = do have vessels to transport water & nutrients.
XYLEM: water & PHLOEM: nutrients

No backbone
Over 1 million species
Feeding:
- Herbivore = plant
- Carnivore = meat
- Parasites = live off others
- Filter feeders = strain water for foods
- Detritus feeders = feed off dead organisms
Mollusks: soft-bodied animals with internal or external shell
- 4 characteristics = foot, mantle, shell, and visceral mass
Annelids: are roundworms that have segments
- Ex: earthworms, leeches, marine bristol worms
Arthropods
- Ex: insects, spiders, crabs, centipedes, scorpions
- Segmented bodies = cephalothorax + abdomen OR cephalothorax + abdomen + head
- Exoskeleton = made of chitin, must shed to grow (molting)
Echinoderms: spiny-skinned aquatic invertebrates
- Ex: sea star, sea urchin, sea cucumber, sand dollar
- Spiny skin
- Penta-radial symmetry (bilateral as larva)
- Endoskeleton
- Tube feet
- Water vascular system