FBI 1140-1540 study guide_3583b0069f31731011e37423817ab37e

Introduction to Biology

  • Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms.
  • It encompasses various fields of study reflecting the diversity and complexity of the biological world.
  • The importance of biology arises from humanity's curiosity about our place in the natural world, which has led to significant scientific discoveries.

Branches of Biology and Their Definitions

  1. Cytology: The study of cells, focusing on their structure, function, and the interactions they have with their environment.
  2. Physiology: The examination of how different organ systems function and interact.
  3. Embryology: The study of the developmental processes from a single cell (zygote) to a full organism.
  4. Ecology: Focuses on the relationships between organisms and their environments, studying both living and non-living factors.
  5. Paleontology: The study of fossils and ancient life forms.
  6. Evolution: Investigates the gradual development of species over time, focusing on mechanisms such as natural selection.
  7. Histology: Examines the microscopic structure of tissues, highlighting how they contribute to overall function.
  8. Genetics: Explores heredity and genetic variation, studying how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
  9. Biochemistry: Deals with the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
  10. Molecular Biology: Investigates biological functions at a molecular level, looking closely at DNA, RNA, and proteins.
  11. Genetic Engineering: Involves manipulating genes for desired traits, often using recombinant DNA technology.
  12. Microbiology: The study of microbes, organisms that are too small to be seen without a microscope, such as bacteria and fungi.
  13. Anatomy: The study of the physical structure of organisms.
  14. Biotechnology: Application of biological knowledge to develop technologies useful in medicine, agriculture, and environmental science.
  15. Plant Breeding: The enhancement of crop plants through selective breeding for better yield and resistance to diseases.
  16. Horticulture: Study of garden plants and cultivation techniques.
  17. Taxonomy: The classification of organisms into various categories based on shared traits.
  18. Lithology: The study of fish.
  19. Batrachology: Focuses on the study of amphibians, particularly frogs.
  20. Herpetology: Examination of reptiles and amphibians.
  21. Saurology: The study of lizards.
  22. Ophiology: Focuses on the study of snakes.
  23. Ornithology: The study of birds, including their behavior, physiology, and taxonomy.
  24. Anthropology: The study of humans and human ancestry.
  25. Protozoology: The study of protozoa, microscopic single-celled organisms.
  26. Mammology: The study of mammals, examining their behavior, evolution, and physiology.
  27. Nematology: The study of nematodes, a type of roundworm.
  28. Entomology: The study of insects, including their taxonomy and ecology.
  29. Myrmecology: Focuses on the study of ants.
  30. Malacology: The study of mollusks, such as snails and octopuses.
  31. Ethology: Examines animal behavior in natural environments.
  32. Limnology: The study of freshwater ecosystems, including lakes and rivers.
  33. Parasitology: The study of parasites and their interactions with host organisms.
  34. Virology: The study of viruses, including their structure, classification, and genetics.
  35. Dermatology: The study of skin and its diseases.
  36. Gynecology: The study of female reproductive health.
  37. Odontology: The study of teeth and dental health.
  38. Phrenology: The study of the skull and its relation to personality.
  39. Enzymology: The study of enzymes, including their kinetics and function.
  40. Osteology: The study of bones.
  41. Otorhinolaryngology: The study of ear, nose, and throat diseases.
  42. Ophthalmology: The study of eyes and vision-related disorders.
  43. Urology: The study of excretory organ systems, particularly kidneys and the urinary tract.
  44. Neurology: The study of the nervous system, its structure, function, and diseases.
  45. Cardiology: The study of the heart and circulatory system.
  46. Hematology: The study of blood and blood-related diseases.
  47. Angiology: The study of blood vessels and lymphatic systems.
  48. Serology: The study of blood serum and immune responses.
  49. Toxicology: The study of poisons and their effects on biological systems.
  50. Radiology: The study of radioactive substances and their properties.
  51. Endocrinology: The study of hormones and glands that produce them.
  52. Pleurology: The study of the lungs and respiratory health.
  53. Aerobiology: The study of airborne organisms or particles.
  54. Eugenics: The study of genetic improvement in humans through selective breeding.
  55. Euthenics: The study of the effect of environmental factors on human development.
  56. Animal Husbandry: The science of raising and breeding animals for food and other products.
  57. Pisciculture: The study and practice of fish farming.
  58. Apiculture: The cultivation of bee species for honey production.
  59. Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic organisms like fish and shellfish.
  60. Poultry Science: The study of breeding and raising domesticated birds for food, like chickens and ducks.
  61. Morphology: The study of the form and structure of organisms, focusing on both external and internal features.

Characteristics of Living Matter

A. Living Organisms are Composed of Cells

  1. Cell: The smallest unit of living things, capable of performing all life processes, composed of limited living material enclosed by a membrane.
  2. Unicellular: A living organism that consists of a single cell. Examples include bacteria and protozoa.
  3. Multicellular: Organisms composed of multiple cells working together; examples include plants and animals.

B. Living Things Grow and Develop

  1. Growth: An increase in size due to cell division or increase in the size of cells (e.g., growth of a plant).
  2. Development: Changes in the cell roles throughout the organism's life cycle (e.g., the transformation of a tadpole into a frog).

C. Living Organisms Maintain Metabolism

  1. Metabolism: The sum of all chemical processes within a cell that enable it to maintain life, which includes breakdown of food and creation of new compounds.
  2. Homeostasis: The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions (e.g., body temperature regulation).

D. Living Organisms Respond to Stimuli

  • Stimulus: Any external environmental change that influences an organism's response (e.g., plants bending towards light).

E. Living Organisms Reproduce

  1. Asexual Reproduction: The process where offspring arise from a single parent organism without the involvement of gametes (e.g., binary fission in bacteria).
  2. Sexual Reproduction: Involves the fusion of specialized sex cells (gametes), such as sperm and eggs, to form a zygote, which develops into a new organism (e.g., flowering plants).

Chapter 2: A Tour of the Cell

Key Questions
  1. What are the three main tenets of cell theory?
  2. What evidence supports the idea that all living cells share a common origin?
  3. Why is surface area to volume ratio crucial for cells?
  4. What happens to the surface area to volume ratio as cell size increases?
  5. Compare light microscopes (LM) and electron microscopes (EM) regarding resolution and magnification.
  6. What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of size and organization?
  7. Define cytoplasm, cytosol, and nucleoplasm; detail the role of membranes in cells.
  8. List organelles and describe their structures and functions.
  9. Diagram and label typical animal and plant cells, focusing on organelles.
  10. Explain the nuclear envelope and describe components like chromatin and nucleoli.
  11. Name products that must exit the nucleus for cell functioning.
  12. Describe ribosomes' structure and function.
  13. Define the endomembrane system and list its organelles.
  14. Diagram the pathway for a secreted protein from synthesis to destination.
  15. Describe the functions of various organelles, including the Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and lysosomes.
  16. Illustrate the structure and function of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
  17. Identify functions of the cytoskeleton and describe its three main types: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
  18. Detail structures like centrosomes, cilia, and flagella.
  19. Compare outer structures of typical bacterial, plant, fungal, and animal cells.
I. Cell Theory
  1. All living organisms are composed of cells. Cells are the smallest unit of life and essential building blocks for multicellular organisms.
    • Cells may be able to divide and grow, encapsulating functional structures called organelles, which perform specific functions; cell types can vary, distinguished by structural and functional characteristics.
    • Done through cytoplasm, an aqueous solution that holds organelles and organic molecules.
  2. New cells arise from pre-existing cells, indicating a cycle of cellular life.
  3. All presently existing cells have a common origin with shared structural and molecular similarities, including:
    • genetic materials (DNA)
    • metabolic pathways and functions for energy conversion
    • transfer of hereditary information in the form of DNA
II. Cell Organization and Homeostasis
  • Plasma Membrane: Encloses cells and differentiates internal contents from the external environment, facilitating the exchange of materials.
  • Types of Cell Structures: Organelle specialization creates a complex internal environment, with varying functions necessary for life.
    • Cell size is constrained by the surface area-to-volume ratio.
  • Larger cells face limitations as their interior becomes further removed from nutrient sources and waste disposal mechanisms.
III. Using Microscopy to Study Cells
  • Light microscopes can resolve cells but have limitations due to light wavelength.
    • The limits of resolution are about 1 micrometer, which restricts the visibility of subcellular organelles.
  • Electron microscopes allow for enhanced visibility using electron beams, providing greater resolution (under 1 nm), leading to the categorization of transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM) forms.
    • Uses include high-resolution studies of cellular structure overall yielding granularity of cellular components.
IV. Cell Calculations and Conversions
  • Understand and apply equivalence of measurements encompassing nanometers (nm), micrometers (µm), millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm), and meters (m).
    • Notably, 1 mm = $10^{-3}$ m, 1 µm = $10^{-6}$ m, translating to conversions featuring varying orders of magnitude to facilitate computations in cell dimensions.
V. Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
  • Eukaryotic cells possess internal membranes, including a membrane-bound nucleus (typically 10-100 µm in size).
  • Prokaryotic cells have a circular chromosome, lack a nuclear envelope, smaller in size (1-10 µm), generally include ribosomes and plasma membranes but lack extensive organelles.
VI. Compartments in Eukaryotic Cells
  1. Cytoplasm: Materials enclosed within the plasma membrane excluding the nucleus, rich in organelles.
  2. Nucleoplasm: Insights of materials contained within the nuclear membrane applying to nucleus– construct for genetic information.
VII. Nucleus Structure
  • Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane enclosing the nucleus, punctuated with nuclear pores for regulated passage of ions and macromolecules.
    • Chromatin and Chromosomes: Genetic material forms granular or condensed structures during cell division.
  • Nucleoli: Sites for assembly of ribosomal subunits formed from rRNA transcription and protein recruitment for ribosome synthesis.
VIII. Ribosomes, Synthesis, and Export
  • Ribosomes play crucial roles in initiating the translation of messenger RNA (m