Japanese Expansionism in East Asia (1853-1941) Study Guide

Timeline of Japanese Expansionism (1853–1926)

• 1853: Commodore Matthew Perry of the USA arrives in Japan.

• 1854: The Treaty of Kanagawa is signed between Japan and the USA.

• 1867: Japan's emperor's powers are restored.

• 1871: The Treaty of Tientsin is signed with China.

• 1894: The Sino-Japanese War begins.

• 1895: The Treaty of Shimonoseki concludes the Sino-Japanese War; China pays a large indemnity and cedes territory.

• 1902: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance is signed.

• 1904: The Russo-Japanese War begins.

• 1905: The Russo-Japanese War ends with the Treaty of Portsmouth.

• 1910: Japan officially annexes Korea.

• 1914: Japan seizes German possessions in Shandong during World War I.

• 1915: The "Twenty-One Demands" are made on China.

• 1918: The Siberian Expedition.

• 1919: The Treaty of Versailles confirms Japan's war gains.

• 1921: The Washington Conference takes place.

• 1925: The Peace Preservation Law is passed; universal adult male suffrage is granted.

• 1926: Hirohito becomes the Emperor of Japan.

Origins of Japanese Nationalism and Militarism (1853–1930)

• Core Definitions:

  • Nationalism: When the people of a country strongly support the interests of their own nation, potentially to the detriment of other nations' interests.

  • Militarism: When a government or population believes it is necessary to maintain a strong military to both defend and promote national interests.

  • The Shogun: Until 1867, Japan was ruled by the bakufu, a feudal military dictatorship. While the emperor was the official ruler, the Shogun (military dictator) held actual power. Beneath the Shogun were the daimyo (feudal lords) and the samurai (warriors).

• Factors Contributing to the Growth of Nationalism:

  • Western-Style Power: The determination to transform Japan into a modern power to achieve equality with the West.

  • Asian Leadership: The belief in Japan's destiny as the leader of Asia.

  • Economic Needs: The requirement for raw materials and secure markets in East Asia to prevent other powers from controlling them.

  • Strategic Security: The need to establish buffers against external threats.

  • Western Actions: Reactions to the perceived imperialist aggression of Western powers.

  • Popular Support: Growing internal support for militarism and expansionist foreign policy.

• Modernization and the Meiji Restoration:

  • Arrival of Perry (1853): Commodore Matthew Perry's "Black Ships" arrived to demand trade. The Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, signed the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) out of fear of Western military superiority.

  • Meiji Emperor: Political power returned to the emperor (Meiji or "enlightened"). Reforms dismantled the feudal system, established industry, and modernized education.

  • Military Reform: The government adopted the slogan "rich country, strong military." The army was modernized using German military tactics, and the navy was developed with British assistance.

• The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95):

  • Japan defeated China, establishing itself as a world power with an empire.

  • Treaty of Shimonoseki: Japan gained the Pescadores Islands, Formosa (Taiwan), and the Liaodong Peninsula. It forced China to recognize Korean independence and pay a large indemnity.

  • Triple Intervention: Germany, Russia, and France forced Japan to give up the Liaodong Peninsula. Shortly after, Russia took it for themselves, while Germany seized Shandong Province.

• The Russo-Japanese War (1904–05):

  • Conflict: Clashes over interests in Korea and Manchuria.

  • Naval Victory: Admiral Togo destroyed the Russian Baltic Fleet in the Tsushima Strait.

  • Treaty of Portsmouth: Japan gained control of Korea, South Manchuria (including Port Arthur), railway rights, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island.

  • Impact: Heightened political awareness and justified the war as a popular undertaking despite a cost of ten times that of the Sino-Japanese War.

• Japan in the 1920s:

  • Internationalism: Led by Foreign Minister Shidehara Kijuro, Japan sought economic advancement through peaceful means and cooperation with the USA.

  • Washington Treaty System:

    • Four-Power Treaty: Britain, Japan, USA, and France agreed to confer in the event of a Pacific crisis.

    • Five-Power Naval Treaty: Restricted battleship tonnage to a ratio of $5:5:3$ for Britain, the USA, and Japan respectively.

    • Nine-Power Treaty: Included China, Belgium, Italy, etc., pledging to respect China's integrity.

  • Taisho Democracy: A series of liberal reforms including the 1925 vote for all adult males. Prime Minister Hara led Japan into the League of Nations.

Japanese Expansion in Southeast Asia (1931–1941)

• Manchuria's Importance: Manchuria was four times the size of Japan, rich in coal, iron, and timber. It served as a buffer against the USSR, a market for goods, and living space for Japan's population ($70 \times 10^6$ by the end of the 1930s).

• The Mukden Incident (September 18, 1931):

  • An explosion occurred on the South Manchurian Railway near Mukden. The Kwantung Army claimed it was Chinese sabotage (evidence suggests the Kwantung Army did it themselves).

  • Outcome: The Kwantung Army acted independently of the Tokyo government, seizing Manchuria and establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932 under Pu Yi.

• Internal Military Factions:

  • Koda-ha (Imperial Way): Radical; favored military dictatorship and state socialism; viewed the USSR as the primary enemy; emphasized "spirit."

  • Tosei-ha (Control Faction): Moderate; favored legal influence in government; wanted modernization of the army; viewed conquest in China as the priority.

  • The May 15th Incident (1932): Army/Navy officers assassinated Prime Minister Inukai, leading to widespread disillusionment with political parties.

• The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45):

  • Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937): Fighting broke out near Beijing; not a result of a prearranged plan, but escalated due to high tensions.

  • Rape of Nanjing: Following the fall of Nanjing on December 13, 1937, Japanese troops committed atrocities. Estimates include $33,000$ rape victims and $12,000$ murdered civilians.

  • Stalemate: China (Jiang Jieshi) refused to surrender, forcing Japan into a war of attrition with overstretched supply lines and guerrilla attacks.

• Escalation to World War II:

  • Tripartite Pact (September 1940): Japan, Germany, and Italy agreed that Germany/Italy would dominate Europe while Japan dominated East Asia.

  • Neutrality Pact (April 1941): Signed with the Soviet Union, securing Japan's northern border.

  • US Oil Embargo: Triggered by Japan's invasion of southern Indo-China in July 1941. Japan, dependent on US oil, chose war to secure resources in the Dutch East Indies.

  • Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941): A surprise attack intended to destroy the US Pacific fleet. While it killed $2,403$ Americans and sank four battleships, it failed to destroy US aircraft carriers.

International Response to Japanese Aggression (1931–1941)

• The League of Nations:

  • Collective Security: The principle that states take joint action against aggression (Articles 10 and 16 of the Covenant).

  • Lytton Commission (1932): Found Japan's use of force unjustified. Recommended Japan withdraw and refused to recognize Manchukuo. In response, Japan left the League in March 1933.

  • Failure to Act: Britain and France were weakened by the Great Depression, lacked military means in the Far East, and viewed Japan as a buffer against Communism.

• The USA's Response:

  • Isolationism: Influenced by WWI trauma and the Wall Street Crash.

  • Stimson Doctrine (1932): A policy of non-recognition for agreements violating China's integrity. It was a "moral force" with no economic or military teeth.

  • Neutrality Acts (1935–37): Laws preventing US involvement in foreign conflicts.

  • The Turning Point (1938): Roosevelt began to resist expansion, fearing the "New Order in East Asia." The USA provided a $25 \times 10^6$ dollar oil loan to China.

  • Full Embargo (1941): Following the move into Indo-China, the USA froze assets and imposed a total oil embargo.

• The Role of China:

  • Second United Front: Jiang Jieshi (GMD) and Mao Zedong (CCP) formed an alliance in 1936 (Xi'an Incident) to fight the Japanese instead of each other.

  • Guerrilla Warfare: Communist forces specialized in guerrilla attacks, while the GMD withdrew to the interior (Chongqing).

Questions & Discussion

• Q: Why were the Japanese excited about the 1895 victory over China?

  • A: Source A indicates excitement because the capture of Pyongyang was unexpectedly easy, despite the city's heavy British cannons. Additionally, China was vastly larger (population $200 \times 10^6$ vs. Japan's $30 \times 10^6$), making the success in Japan's first foreign war seem a remarkable proof of national competence.

• Q: What is the message of the French cartoon (1898) regarding China?

  • A: The cartoon depicts China as a large pie being carved up by Western powers (Queen Victoria, the German Kaiser, etc.) while a helpless Chinese official gestures in fear, illustrating the era of "gunboat diplomacy" and the loss of Chinese sovereignty.

• Q: What are the values and limitations of memoirs for historians?

  • A: (e.g., Ubukata Toshiro, 1931). Values: Provides an eyewitness account of the emotional impact of events on the population. Limitations: Written decades after the fact (35 years), the author's memory may be influenced by Japan's later status as a world power, and the language may be exaggerated for dramatic effect.

• Q: How did the Triple Intervention impact Japanese psychology?

  • A: According to Source D, it convinced the Japanese that "sincerity and justice didn't amount to a thing if you weren't strong enough." It proved that despite following Western rules, Japan would still be denied equal membership in the "imperialist club" due to racial bias and yellow-peril sloganeering.