Sociological Research – Exam Review Notes

Scientific Method Overview

• Systematic series of steps ensuring objectivity & consistency
• Core steps: define problem → review literature → formulate hypothesis → select research design & collect/analyze data → develop conclusion → suggest further research

Key Concepts & Definitions

• \text{Operational\ definition}: precise explanation of an abstract concept for measurement
• \text{Hypothesis}: speculative statement on relationship between variables
• \text{Variable}: measurable trait; can change under conditions
  • Independent: presumed cause
  • Dependent: presumed effect
  • Control: held constant to isolate effect
• \text{Causal\ logic}: one event leads to another
• \text{Correlation} \neq \text{Causation} (simultaneous change may not imply cause)

Major Research Designs

• Surveys: interviews or questionnaires; yield quantitative or qualitative data
• Ethnography: extended fieldwork; includes observation & participant observation
• Experiments: controlled environment; experimental vs. control groups; beware \text{Hawthorne\ Effect}
• Existing Sources: secondary analysis & content analysis of pre-collected data

Sampling & Data Quality

• Representative sample: statistically reflects population
• Random sample: equal selection chance for every member
• Snowball (convenience) sample: recruits via networks/online posts
• \text{Validity}: measure reflects intended phenomenon
• \text{Reliability}: measure yields consistent results

Basic Statistics

• Percentage: part per 100
• \text{Mean}: arithmetic average \left(\frac{\sum x}{n}\right)
• \text{Mode}: most frequent value
• \text{Median}: midpoint splitting ordered data into equal halves

Ethics in Sociological Research (ASA Code)

• Maintain objectivity & integrity
• Respect privacy & dignity; protect from harm
• Preserve confidentiality; secure informed consent
• Acknowledge collaboration; disclose funding sources