Class 5 W 09/17/25: The Fall of the Republic
The Roman Republic gradually fell over approximately 100 years, unable to adapt its government from a city-state model to rule an expansive empire with diverse peoples. Four main factors contributed to its decline:
1. Land Crisis
Latifundia: Wealthy owners bought large-scale commercial farms, displacing small farmers who served in the military. This led to wealth concentration, disenfranchisement, and manipulation of the voting system.
Foreign Grain: Rome became reliant on cheaper grain imports, devaluing local agriculture and reducing self-sufficiency.
2. Population Growth
The city of Rome grew by 750,000 people in a century, leading to overcrowding, poverty, crime, and sanitation issues. This created widespread discontent and eroded belief in Roman ideals.
3. Military Manpower Crisis
Originally, soldiers had to own land. As the wealthy acquired more land through Latifundia, fewer citizens qualified for military service.
Marius's Reforms: General Gaius Marius created a paid, volunteer, professional army, eliminating the land requirement. Soldiers became loyal to their commanders (e.g., Marius, Julius Caesar) rather than the state, paving the way for military dictators.
4. Provincial Governance
Widespread extortion and bribery by governors and generals in the provinces became rampant, necessitating laws like the Lex Calpurnia to prosecute such behavior.
The Gracchi Brothers (Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus)
Grandchildren of Scipio Africanus, they challenged the status quo by advocating for the common man.
Tiberius (133 BCE): As Tribune of the Plebs, he proposed land reform (limiting land ownership and redistributing it to veterans and farmers) by bypassing the Senate. He was assassinated with his followers, marking the introduction of political violence into Roman politics.
Gaius (123 BCE): More radical than his brother, he pursued further land reform, grain sales to the poor at reduced prices, settlement of landless Romans in provinces, public works programs, reduced Senate power, and full citizenship for Italian allies. He and thousands of his supporters were also killed.
Their actions highlighted conflicting views within the ruling class and normalized violence as a political tool.
Optimates and Populares
Two philosophical camps emerged within the senatorial class:
Optimates: (e.g., Sulla, Cicero, Pompey) sought to maintain the traditional power of the wealthy and the Senate.
Populares: (e.g., Gracchi, Marius, Julius Caesar) advocated for reforms and gained power by appealing to the common people, often using the plebeian assembly.
Rise of Military Dictators
Continuous conflict between rich and poor, slave rebellions (e.g., Spartacus), and barbarian invasions led to a demand for strong leadership that the inflexible Republic could not provide.
Marius and Sulla
Marius: A Populare, elected consul seven times. His army reforms created a professional force loyal to him.
Sulla: An Optimate and successful general, he engaged in a civil war with Marius. Sulla marched on Rome, killed Marius's followers, and introduced prescription lists—published lists of political enemies whose assassins were rewarded with their property. He served as dictator for three years (exceeding the traditional six months) before retiring, further entrenching political violence.
The First Triumvirate
An unofficial, initially secret, alliance formed by three powerful men to consolidate power:
Pompey the Great: Celebrated military general, disgruntled by the Senate's lack of recognition.
Marcus Crassus: The wealthiest man in Rome, who gained riches by exploiting Sulla's prescription lists and dubious real estate dealings.
Julius Caesar: From a famous but bankrupt family, he gained immense popularity and military success in Gaul, writing propaganda about his campaigns.
The alliance was a fragile arrangement of convenience; they used each other for mutual benefit.
To solidify ties, Pompey married Julia, Caesar's daughter.
End of the Triumvirate:
In 53 BCE, Crassus was killed in battle against the Parthians.
Shortly after, Julia died in childbirth, severing the familial bond between Pompey and Caesar.
Pompey grew jealous of Caesar's successes in Gaul.
Caesar Crosses the Rubicon (49 BCE)
Pompey, with Senate backing, demanded Caesar return to Rome as a private citizen without his army. This would have led to Caesar's execution.
Caesar chose to march his army across the Rubicon River (the unofficial boundary of Roman territory), declaring "alea iacta est" (the dice has been rolled), initiating a civil war.
Pompey fled to Greece, and Caesar quickly gained control of Italy.
Civil War and Caesar's Dictatorship
Caesar pursued Pompey to Greece, defeating his army at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE.
Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was killed by Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra's brother, who sought to curry favor with Caesar.
Upon arriving in Egypt, Caesar sided with Cleopatra, had Ptolemy XIII killed, and established Cleopatra as the sole ruler. He also had a son, Caesarion, with Cleopatra.
With Pompey's death, Julius Caesar became the undisputed leader of the Republic. He was appointed dictator, then consul, and dictator again, never becoming an emperor.
He famously declared, "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered) after victories in the east.
Caesar's Reforms
Upon returning to Rome in 45 BCE, Caesar implemented several reforms:
Public works programs to employ the poor.
Distribution of public lands to Roman citizens.
Granting citizenship to more people.
Reforms of the provinces and the calendar (including the month of July).
Reorganizing Rome's coinage system and putting his image on coins, reinforcing his control and divine lineage.
Assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE)
In February 44 BCE, Caesar was appointed dictator for life, a move that the Senate viewed as a step towards monarchy.
On the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BCE, a group of senators, including his close friend Brutus, assassinated him by stabbing him at least 23 times.
Caesar died in the Theater of Pompey at the base of a statue of Pompey, a significant historical irony, as the Julian Senate house was under repair.