Chapter 12 Lecture 10.20
Andrew Jackson's Impact on the Presidency
Power of the Presidency
Andrew Jackson significantly increased the power of the presidency.
He frequently used the presidential veto, more than all previous presidents combined, to assert executive authority and halt legislation he opposed, particularly the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States.
This enhancement of presidential power occurred at the expense of the legislative and judiciary branches, particularly the Supreme Court.
Jackson often ignored Supreme Court rulings that he disagreed with, notably his defiance of the Worcester v. Georgia (1832) decision, where Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Georgia had no jurisdiction over Cherokee lands. Jackson is famously quoted as saying, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it."
He pursued his agenda irrespective of court decisions, effectively challenging judicial review.
Positive Aspects of Jackson's Presidency
Financial Achievements
During his presidency, the United States became debt-free for the first and only time in history, achieved through a combination of robust land sales and high tariff revenues.
Commitment to Union
Jackson prioritized preserving the Union over states' rights, showcasing his pro-Union stance during conflicts like the nullification crisis. His firm stance against nullification, famously expressed in a toast: "Our Federal Union: it must be preserved!" solidified his commitment.
Negative Aspects of Jackson's Presidency
Indian Removal
Jackson enacted the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the federal government to negotiate treaties with Native American tribes for their removal from ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to federal territory west of the Mississippi River.
This policy led to the forced relocation of several Native American nations, including the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole.
The most devastating consequence was the Trail of Tears (1838-1839), under his successor Martin Van Buren's administration but initiated by Jackson's policies, where approximately 15,000 Cherokees were forcibly marched westward, resulting in the deaths of thousands from disease, starvation, and exposure.
Opposition to the National Bank
He abolished the Second Bank of the United States, viewing it as an unconstitutional and dangerous monopoly that concentrated wealth and power in the hands of a few elites and foreign investors, rather than serving the common man.
Jackson vetoed its re-charter in 1832 and subsequently ordered the withdrawal of federal deposits, distributing them to various state banks, often called "pet banks." This move drew significant criticism and is viewed negatively by some historians as contributing to financial instability.
Early Presidency and Personal Tragedy
Election and Cabinet Formation
Jackson was elected in 1828 in a highly contentious election, which followed the controversial "Corrupt Bargain" election of 1824. He began his presidency in 1829, inaugurating an era known as "Jacksonian Democracy."
His wife, Rachel Jackson, died shortly before his inauguration, leaving him a widower without a First Lady, which deeply affected him.
His cabinet included notable figures such as
Vice President John C. Calhoun from South Carolina,
Martin Van Buren as Secretary of State.
Social Dynamics in the White House
A scandal known as the Petticoat Affair, involving Margaret “Peggy” Eaton, unfolded in Jackson's administration. Peggy Eaton was the wife of Jackson's Secretary of War, John Eaton.
Peggy Eaton was shunned by other cabinet wives, led by Floride Calhoun (wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun), due to her background and their gossip about her alleged promiscuity and previous marriage.
Jackson, protective of women facing hardship (reminiscent of the attacks on his own late wife), intervened on her behalf, demanding that his cabinet members and their wives treat Mrs. Eaton with respect. This angered the other women and led to prolonged social tension and political infighting within the cabinet.
Ultimately, Jackson resolved the conflict by asking his cabinet members to resign in 1831, effectively reshaping his cabinet entirely, which further empowered Martin Van Buren, who stood by Eaton.
Nullification Crisis
Context
The Tariff of Abominations (also known as the Tariff of 1828) was passed near the end of John Quincy Adams's presidency. This high protective tariff hurt Southern agricultural interests by raising the cost of imported goods and reducing foreign demand for Southern cotton.
Initially supported by Westerners seeking protection for fledgling industries, it was vehemently opposed by Southerners due to its adverse effects on their economy.
South Carolina reacted by holding a convention to declare the tariff null and void within its borders, leading to the formation of a significant political and constitutional crisis concerning states' rights versus federal authority.
Calhoun and Nullification
John C. Calhoun, then Vice President, became the leading intellectual proponent of nullification. He argued vehemently that states had the right to void federal laws if deemed harmful or unconstitutional, citing the Tenth Amendment, which reserves powers not delegated to the federal government for the states, and his "South Carolina Exposition and Protest."
Jackson's Response
In retaliation, Jackson endorsed the Force Bill of 1833, granting him the authority to use military force to enforce federal law and collect tariffs in South Carolina.
This decision mirrored historical precedents set by George Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion.
Jackson notably condemned South Carolina's protest, calling it treasonous and a direct threat to the Union.
Compromise
The crisis concluded when Henry Clay brokered a compromise, the Tariff of 1833, which gradually reduced tariff levels to their 1816 status by 1842. In response, South Carolina repealed its nullification of the tariffs but, in a symbolic act, nullified the Force Bill.
This episode illustrated that a single state could not successfully challenge the federal government's authority on such a fundamental issue.
Sectionalism and Political Dynamics
Emerging Sectionalism
Robert Hayne of South Carolina articulated grievances about Southern interests suffering under the policies favoring the Northeast, giving rise to the term sectionalism – a strong loyalty to one's own region or section of the country.
Daniel Webster, a senator from Massachusetts, responded strongly against Hayne in the famous Webster-Hayne debate of 1830, famously declaring, "liberty and union now and forever, one and inseparable." His eloquent defense of federal power and the Union strengthened his political reputation.
Jackson's New Cabinet
Martin Van Buren, after serving as Secretary of State and navigating the fallout from the Petticoat Affair, became vice president during Jackson's second term, a testament to his loyalty and political skill.
Native American Relations and Conflicts
Perception Shift
Earlier views of Native Americans as “noble savages” capable of assimilation shifted significantly. By the Jacksonian era, dominant sentiment viewed them primarily as obstacles to American westward expansionist desires, leading to more aggressive policies aimed at their removal and displacement.
Black Hawk War
The conflict known as the Black Hawk War in 1832 occurred primarily in the Illinois and Wisconsin territories. It involved sets of Sauk and Fox Native Americans, led by Chief Black Hawk, who attempted to return to their ancestral lands east of the Mississippi River, which settlers perceived as an invasion.
Led by Chief Black Hawk, the Native Americans were ultimately outmatched by U.S. militia and regular army forces, leading to tragic outcomes even during surrender attempts, such as the Bad Axe Massacre, highlighting the violent dynamics and brutality of the era.
Notable historical figures such as Abraham Lincoln (then a militia captain) and Jefferson Davis (a young army lieutenant) participated in this conflict, prefiguring their future roles in American history during the Civil War.