unit 9
Unit Nine: Theoretical and Applied Psychology After World War One
Women in Psychology
Participation Increase: After the 1920s, women's participation in American psychology increased, though obstacles remained prevalent.
Obstacle 1: Tradition
Women faced the dilemma of choosing between a college education and marriage, or an advanced degree and an academic career versus having children.
Men typically did not face such choices, as they could pursue education, a career, and family life simultaneously.
Obstacle 2: Gender Prejudice in the Workplace
Widespread biases led many employers to prefer hiring men for teaching and research positions, as they believed women would be less dedicated due to household responsibilities.
Obstacle 3: Limited Career Advancement
Women hired in applied psychology often found themselves in supportive roles rather than being promoted to prestigious academic positions like full or tenured professors.
These obstacles reflect deep-rooted societal beliefs regarding gender roles and responsibilities in work and family life.
Contemporary Relevance: These historical issues are echoed in modern experiences.
Personal anecdote from the lecturer: Upon discussing PhD aspirations and family plans with a professor, she was told she would have to choose between them. The lecturer’s determination led her to prove otherwise, achieving both milestones simultaneously.
Statistics on Women's Membership in the APA (American Psychological Association):
In 1917: Women constituted 13% of APA membership (higher than in other American scientific societies).
By 1921: Women made up 31% of the British Psychological Society.
By 1928: Women represented 34% of APA members.
By 2001: 50% of APA members were women.
By 2002: Women outnumbered men in APA membership.
Psychological Testing
Introduction to Psychological Testing (1917):
A group of American psychologists gained permission to test newly enlisted individuals in the US Army, developing two main tests:
Army Alpha Test: Designed for literate soldiers.
Army Beta Test: for illiterate soldiers or those with poor English skills, which included about 40% of the recruits tested.
Components of the Tests:
Army Alpha: Comprised eight subtests covering analogies, everyday judgments, understanding written directions, simple math, and more.
Army Beta: Included picture completion, drawing tasks, and symbol recognition.
Both tests were administered in groups and were designed to be completed within one hour.
Findings from Testing:
Over 1.7 million recruits were tested, revealing a large disparity among various groups.
Average mental age of recruits was approximately 13 years.
Disparity in Scores:
Black, Hispanic, and recent immigrant groups scored significantly lower than middle-class individuals.
This led to debates about the validity of such mental tests, with criticisms focusing on the argument that intelligence could not be accurately assessed through pencil-and-paper tests, nor could brief tests predict success in life or careers.
Critics highlighted cultural bias, suggesting that middle-class white individuals had an advantage due to familiarity with the test material.
Ellis Island Studies
Context and Purpose:
Ellis Island, opened in 1892, sought to identify immigrants with mental deficiencies, fueled by public concern over social problems.
Immigration officials tasked psychologists to assist, leading to the implementation of intelligence tests.
Tests Used at Ellis Island:
Based on the Binet test, translated by psychologist Henry Goddard.
Tests also included geometry questions and issues on practical knowledge.
Many immigrants required interpreters during testing.
Outcomes of the Testing:
In 1913, more than 500 individuals were deported as mentally deficient, tripling exclusions from previous years without testing.
Criticism of the Ellis Island Testing:
Objections were raised about using child-focused tests on adults, arguing that the stressful testing environment impacted performance.
Critics noted that low scores likely stemmed from cultural biases rather than actual intellectual limitations.
Environmental Influence on Intelligence
Iowa Child Welfare Station:
Established in 1917 to study healthy children’s development in ordinary conditions without bias due to socioeconomic status.
Longitudinal studies indicated that children removed from poor environments (like orphanages) and placed in supportive homes saw increases in IQ scores.
Leaving children in adverse conditions led to diminished intelligence scores.
Challenged Assumptions:
The prevalent belief that intelligence was solely a product of genetics was confronted by these findings, suggesting significant environmental impact.
The research faced skepticism and accusations of deliberate manipulation of results to support a specific hypothesis.
Influential Psychological Theories
Lev Vygotsky:
Known for the concept of the zone of proximal development, emphasizing social and cultural aspects of cognition.
Vygotsky posited that development could progress beyond natural limits through social interaction.
His work influenced narrative therapy and special education (termed defectology by Vygotsky himself).
Jean Piaget:
Developed stages of cognitive development, contributing significantly to genetic epistemology, which studies the evolution of knowledge.
Key concepts include assimilation (integrating new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (adjusting schemas to incorporate new information).
Example of assimilation: A child seeing a zebra for the first time may initially label it as a horse until distinctions are clarified, leading to accommodation where the child's schema is adjusted.
Development of Personality Psychology
Growth in the 1920s:
Increasing focus on personality measurement, description of individual components, and theorization of personality forms and types.
Vocabulary surrounding personality evolved, with distinctions made between personality, character, and temperament.
Social Psychology Development
Norman Triplett's Studies:
Demonstrated that individuals perform differently in groups vs. alone; for instance, athletes performed better in competition.
Later studies showed improved performance on simple tasks in group settings but not on difficult tasks, where individual concentration suffered.
Concept of Social Influence:
Floyd Allport emphasized that while social situations affect actions, behavior could be analyzed individually.
Muzaffar Sherif's Contributions:
Conducted experiments to study group norms and decision-making, showing collective judgments could lead to inaccurate conclusions.
Asch’s Conformity Experiment
Solomon Asch (1950s):
Investigated social conformity, demonstrating that individuals often conform to group responses even when they are obviously incorrect.
The desire for acceptance often overrides personal judgment and accuracy.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Leon Festinger’s Theory:
Psychological tension arises when individuals experience dissonance between beliefs and behaviors, prompting a need to resolve the inconsistency.
Mechanisms for resolution:
Change belief to align with behavior or vice versa.
Example:
A person who smokes may reconcile the behavior by justifying it with varying rationalizations while knowing the health risks.
Research Implications:
Schema evaluation influencing therapy, marketing, and other areas showcasing psychology's practical applications.
Conclusion of Unit Nine
The advancement of psychology post-World War One through the lens of gender issues, psychological testing, personality development, and social psychology offers critical insights into how societal perceptions and scientific methods intertwine in understanding human behavior.