Notes: Creating Anglo-America, 1660–1750 (Page-by-Page)
Page 1
Major chronological anchors (events listed in the transcript):
1624: Dutch West India Company settles Manhattan.
1651: First Navigation Act issued by Parliament.
1664: English seize New Netherland; colony becomes New York.
1669: Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina issued.
1670: First English settlers arrive in Carolina.
1675: Lords of Trade; King Philip’s War (1675–1676).
1676: Bacon’s Rebellion occurs in Virginia.
1681: William Penn granted Pennsylvania.
1682: Charter of Liberty drafted by Penn.
1683: Charter of Liberties & Privileges drafted by New York assembly.
1686–1688: Dominion of New England formed.
1688: Glorious Revolution in England.
1689: Parliament enacts a Bill of Rights.
1690: Leisler’s Rebellion in New York; Toleration Act (1690s) passed by Parliament.
1691: Plymouth colony absorbed into Massachusetts.
1692: Salem witch trials begin.
1692–1715: Yamasee and Creek uprising is crushed.
1737: Walking Purchase.
Broader context introduced:
The page sets up a timeline of imperial expansion and conflict in the mid-Atlantic colonies.
It foreshadows debates over English rights, governance, and the treatment of Indigenous peoples, settlers, and enslaved Africans.
Key concepts to grasp from this page:
The shift from Dutch to English control and its political/legal implications (rights of Englishmen, property, and religious toleration).
The cascade of revolts and political reorganizations (Dominion of New England, Glorious Revolution, Bill of Rights) that ripple into the Americas.
The recurring pattern of conflict between colonists and Indigenous peoples (King Philip’s War; Yamasee/Creek; Walking Purchase).
Significance for exam: understand the sequence of governance changes and how they catalyzed broader social tensions in the colonies.
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GLOBAL COMPETITION AND THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND’S EMPIRE
The Mercantilist System: The government should regulate economic activity to promote national power; exports should exceed imports; colonies exist to supply raw materials and absorb manufactured goods from home. Core idea: commerce (not plunder) is the foundation of empire; “English treasure” comes from foreign trade.
The Conquest of New Netherland: Restoration of the English monarchy (1660) leads to expansion; Royal African Company monopoly on slave trade; number of English colonies in North America doubles in a generation. New Netherland is seized (1664); renamed New York; becomes an imperial outpost and base for military operations.
New York and the Rights of Englishmen and Englishwomen: Surrender terms protected religious toleration and property of diverse communities, but English law reshapes gender/property norms (e.g., Dutch women’s business rights and inheritance traditions shifted toward male heirs).
New York and the Indians: Early English rule expands the Iroquois’ position via the Covenant Chain; later shifting dynamics as tribes seek to balance European powers.
The Charter of Liberties: In 1683, New York establishes an elected assembly; its charter affirms trial by jury, property rights, religious toleration for Protestants, and three-year elections for freemen.
The Founding of Carolina: Granted to eight proprietors in 1663; settled beginning 1670; Carolina evolves from a Barbados offshoot into a slave-led, rice-producing colony; the Fundamental Constitutions envision nobility and serfdom but also an elected assembly and religious toleration.
The Holy Experiment (Penn’s Pennsylvania): Penn’s vision of a Quaker refuge; Frame of Government (1677 West Jersey Concessions) and Charter of Liberty (1682) promote elected assemblies, broad suffrage, religious liberty, and cooperation with Indians.
Quaker Liberty: Liberty as a universal entitlement; pacifist relations with Indians; land purchases before resales; non-established church; religious tolerance for all except Jews from office via oath.
Land in Pennsylvania: Penn owned land and sold it to settlers at low prices; land policy aimed at small farmers; openness to various European immigrants.
ORIGINS OF AMERICAN SLAVERY: Slavery emerges in the Western Atlantic through demand for labor in plantation economies; contrasts with indentured servitude; Africans offer legal non-protection under English law; race begins to become a central category of oppression.
Subtopics under Slavery: Slavery in History; Slavery in the West Indies; Slavery and the Law; The Rise of Chesapeake Slavery; Bacon’s Rebellion; Notions of Freedom.
Significance for exam: links among mercantilist policy, imperial expansion, and the social structuring of colonies (racialized slavery, land distribution, religious liberty). Understand how Pennsylvania’s model both attracted immigrants and later contributed to shifts in labor systems (e.g., decline of indentured servitude in Maryland/Virginia).
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FOCUS QUESTIONS to guide analysis (from the text):
How did the English empire in America expand in the mid-seventeenth century?
How was slavery established in the Western Atlantic world?
What major social and political crises rocked the colonies in the late seventeenth century?
What were the directions of social and economic change in the eighteenth-century colonies?
How did patterns of class and gender roles change in eighteenth-century America?
Contextual focus for King Philip’s War (1675–1676):
Metacom (King Philip) is described as mastermind, though multiple tribes fought under various leaders.
White population greatly outnumbered Indians, yet the war threatened the New England colonies; by 1676, Indian forces attacked about half of New England towns, with significant destruction in Massachusetts.
After the war, English settlers’ access to land broadened, but at the expense of Indigenous dispossession.
The page frames a “general crisis of colonial society” in the late seventeenth century, with multiple conflicts highlighting violence between rich and poor, settlers and Indians, and religious factions.
Significance for exam: use focus questions to test understanding of causes, mechanisms, and consequences of seventeenth-century crises; relate to broader themes of freedom, property, and imperial power.
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How did the English empire in America expand in the mid-seventeenth century? (Answer in brief from the text.)
Population and casualties of King Philip’s War: approximately 9{,}000 settlers and 3{,}000 of New England’s 20{,}000 Indians perished; by mid-1676 the tide reversed; the Iroquois allied with New York aided the colonists; Metacom captured and executed; many Indians sold into slavery; conditions on Deer Island led to high deaths among “praying Indians.”
The Mercantilist System (continued explanation):
The Navigation Act framework, aiming to channel trade through English ships and ports; enumerated goods requirement; exports should exceed imports; trade as foundation of empire; the merchant class benefits from a favorable balance of trade.
The text also describes early English expansion following Charles II’s restoration; Royal African Company gains slave-trade monopoly; the English colonization of New Netherland expands imperial reach.
Significance: this page ties military conflict to economic policy; mercantilism is presented as the engine for imperial growth and colony organization.
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Eastern North America in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries: A geographic and political map snapshot showing:
The English, Dutch, French, and Spanish settlements and their dates.
The spread of English colonies along the Atlantic coast with New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, etc.
The Navigation Acts (detailed):
Goods transported in English ships; colonial products (e.g., tobacco, sugar) must be shipped via England; laws aimed to keep revenue within the English economy; and to bolster English shipbuilding and merchant class.
By the eighteenth century, the English empire had a dense network of English settlement across the Atlantic, with French presence to the north and west.
The Conquest of New Netherland continues to be a central case study in imperial control and the rights of Englishmen in newly acquired colonies.
Significance: establishes the geographic and political landscape that shapes colonial governance, trade, and inter-imperial competition.
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The economic and legal framework of English rule in New York:
The Navigation Acts require that colonial trade be conducted in English ships and routed through English ports; this policy fuels New England shipbuilding and provides imperial revenue.
The English expand rights and impose new laws that reflect English legal concepts (rights of Englishmen) while diminishing Dutch practices (e.g., marriage laws, property inheritance for women).
The “freeman” status (birth or local acts) grants political and economic privileges; free Blacks faced restrictions on skilled labor and other rights.
Landholding patterns under English rule:
Massive land grants to favorites (e.g., Robert Livingston, Frederick Philipse); by 1700, about 2 million acres owned by five New York families; this forms a powerful landed elite.
New York and its Indians:
Covenant Chain with the Iroquois creates a bilateral alliance; later, Indians outside the Iroquois system negotiate with various empires; by century’s end, Iroquois pursue neutrality to exploit fur trade profits.
Charter of Liberties: as a response to Dutch governance, establishes English-style liberties and an assembly; dovetails with broader tensions between old Dutch settlers and newer English colonists.
Significance: highlights the transformation of colonial governance and property regimes, and how land, race, and alliance-building shape imperial power.
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The New York frontier and Indian policy in the late 17th century:
Covenant Chain strengthens English–Iroquois ties; Iroquois claim authority over Indian communities to the west; European conflict reshapes Indian politics.
From the 1680s onward, tribes around the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley push back against Iroquois influence with French aid, leading to shifting alliances and new balance of power.
By the end of the 17th century, the Iroquois adopt a nuanced neutrality strategy, balancing between European powers to preserve fur-trade profits.
The Charter of Liberties (continuation): an ongoing effort to define liberties and property rights that align with English constitutional norms; this fosters a civil political culture among New York settlers.
Slavery origins and legal status begin to take firmer root, foreshadowing future “slave society” dynamics in the Chesapeake and beyond.
Significance: shows how Indigenous diplomacy and settler elites co-evolve under imperial competition; sets up later escalation of slave labor as the economic core of some colonies.
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The Founding of Carolina (continued):
1669 Fundamental Constitutions envisioned a feudal society with landgrav es and caciques, but practical settlement relies on a generous headright system (150 acres per arriving family; 100 acres to male indentured servants).
The colony is slow to develop the feudal baronies; slavery quickly becomes the dominant force structuring Carolina’s society.
Early Carolina’s economy centers on cattle-raising and Indian trade rather than large-scale agriculture, until rice becomes the staple that makes the colony affluent and a hub of mainland slavery.
The Holy Experiment (Pennsylvania) continues to emphasize religious liberty, fair treatment of Indians, and a liberal frame of government with elected assembly and broad suffrage.
Quaker Liberty: Penn’s vision includes equal moral status for all (including women, Blacks, and Indians) before God; peaceable relations with Indigenous peoples; a system that allows land purchases to be resold to settlers and even double-purchases when tribes claim land.
Religious liberty and toleration in Pennsylvania: Charter of Liberty allows “Christian liberty” for those who affirm belief in God; no established church; Jews barred from office by oath requiring belief in Jesus Christ.
Land in Pennsylvania: Penn controls all land and uses sales to promote settlement; a policy designed to create a “holy experiment” rather than a feudal landholding system.
Notable tension: Pennsylvania’s liberal Indian policy and openness to immigrants will later clash with Native land claims as population expands.
Significance: contrasts two models of colonial governance (Quaker liberty vs. Carolina’s feudal ambitions) and foreshadows the sociopolitical consequences of religious toleration and land policy.
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Origins of American Slavery (continued):
Slavery was not an intentional system from the start, but was driven by labor needs in plantation economies (tobacco, rice, sugar) and differences in legal status between Africans and Europeans.
The first Africans arrived in 1619 (20 Africans in Virginia); initially some could gain freedom; later, reinforced by laws, life-long slavery becomes typical.
Slaves provided labor, notably in tobacco fields; the social and legal framework created a racialized hierarchy, which deepens over time.
English attitudes toward race and slavery:
Race as a category emerges in law and public discourse; European ideas of civilization vs. barbarism contribute to a belief in the “enslavability” of Africans, while Indians face different strategic roles in labor markets.
Slavery in the West Indies vs. the Chesapeake:
The Caribbean sugar plantations rapidly adopt slave labor due to high mortality among European workers and the need for large-scale, continuous labor.
Slavery grows far more quickly in the West Indies than in mainland North America, where tobacco labor remained a mix of indentured servitude and African slaves.
Notions of freedom begin to shift: as slavery spreads, racialized bondage becomes central to the colonial economy and social hierarchy.
Significance: shows how labor needs, legal frameworks, and racial thinking converge to establish a slave-based society in parts of the Atlantic world, with long-term implications for American society.
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Englishmen and Africans; the early development of race-based slavery:
The English traditionally saw outsiders as inferior, but the concept of race as a fixed category did not yet fully develop in the 17th century.
Africans were seen as “enslavable” due to color, religion, and social practices; Indians faced different exploitation and often sought to avoid slavery.
The institution of slavery in English North America develops through legal codifications and the economics of labor on plantations.
Slavery in history and in the Atlantic world:
The text contrasts the deep-rooted, race-based slavery in the Americas with earlier forms in Greece, Rome, or medieval Europe.
Slavery in the Americas is linked to plantation farming, with harsher, more rigid systems that police freedom, and a strict line between enslaved and free people.
The first Africans in Virginia (1619) and early status: initial ambiguity in status; some enslaved, some free after limited terms; the legal framework gradually tightens to define permanent bondage.
Notion of race as a legal construct grows slowly; by 1680 the concept of blackness as a fixed category is taking hold in law.
Significance: helps explain the evolution from a flexible, transaction-based bondage to a rigid racial caste system that underpins economic and political life in the Chesapeake and beyond.
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The Rise of Chesapeake Slavery (continued):
Early cases show a mix of status, including free Black individuals who could own property and interact with white society; later, laws codify permanent slave status and restrict rights (militia service, religious conversion, manumission, etc.).
1643 poll tax levied on African women but not white women; early legal distinctions begin to entrench racial difference.
The Johnson example (Anthony Johnson) demonstrates that some Black individuals could attain property and influence, indicating that the legal system was not yet entirely uniform in applying slavery.
The 1660s onward: laws increasingly define slavery by race; the status of children follows the mother (1662 law), ensuring that children born to enslaved women remain slaves; religious conversion no longer liberates enslaved people (1667).
The 1680s: broadening of racial controls; by 1680, the law embeds racial difference into the legal framework, creating a stable basis for slavery as a hereditary and racial system.
Significance: shows the incremental legal construction of racial slavery and how it becomes foundational to labor systems in the Chesapeake.
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Slavery in the West Indies (expanded view):
West Indian sugar plantations become the model of mass slave labor; by 1645 Barbadian slave numbers swell; by 1660, Barbados’s population is about 40,000 with roughly half African; by 1670, enslaved Africans dominate the labor force on plantations.
Sugar cultivation’s profitability drives mass slave imports and the transformation of the Caribbean economy; the Spanish, Portuguese, English, Dutch, and French all invest in sugar islands.
Slavery and the law (Western Atlantic):
Slavery becomes deeply embedded through legal structures; unlike the Iberian empires (Las Siete Partidas) which granted some rights to slaves, English law becomes more repressive and racialized.
The Atlantic slave trade as a global phenomenon: ships transporting Africans to the Americas sustain sugar economies and create interconnected imperial markets.
Significance: connects Atlantic trade networks to labor regimes across colonies; helps explain why some regions become “slave societies” while others remain “societies with slaves.”
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More on the origins of American slavery (carving out Africa-to-Americas labor flows):
Sugar colonies in the Caribbean (Saint-Domingue, Barbados) demonstrate the profitability of enslaved labor and scale of slave economies.
In North America, enslaved labor grows more slowly due to higher costs of African slaves and mortality of tobacco workers; tobacco’s profitability did not initially justify lifetime servitude for many planters.
By the late 17th century, the Chesapeake still relies heavily on indentured servants, but slavery begins to dominate as mortality declines and land becomes scarce.
The most important social distinction in the Chesapeake during the 17th century is not just race but a divide between planter elites and others (small farmers, indentured servants, and slaves).
Significance: clarifies why slavery expanded differently across regions and how economic incentives shape labor systems.
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Slavery and the Law (continued):
Early legal status of Chesapeake blacks was ambiguous; the first African arrivals did not immediately become lifelong slaves; later, the law tightens to create a hereditary, lifelong status based on race.
1645 Barbados example illustrates that slavery was already a major economic force in the Caribbean; the text emphasizes that the English empire used law to codify slavery more rigidly over time.
The development of slave codes begins to formalize the difference between white and Black laborers and to limit the rights of enslaved people.
Overall takeaway: The legal codification of racial slavery takes hold in the 17th century as a key instrument of social control in English America.
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Bacon’s Rebellion: Land and labor in Virginia (1676)
Causes: Expansion of tobacco farming into western lands, alienation of landless whites, taxation, and resentment of Berkeley’s inner circle of planters; conflicts with Indians on the frontier over land and security.
Bacon’s leadership: Nathaniel Bacon mobilizes servants and landless whites; he promises freedom and Indian land to supporters; he marches on Jamestown, burns it, and challenges Berkeley’s authority.
End: English naval power intervenes; Berkeley regains control; Bacon dies before the rebellion ends; a punitive response follows.
Consequences for colonization and slavery:
The elite fear of white rebellion leads to a tightening of political control and a shift toward more brutal suppression of the poor.
A shift away from indentured servitude toward lifelong slavery accelerates as planters seek stable, perpetual labor along tobacco plantations.
Property qualifications for voting are reinstated; taxes are reduced; Indian frontier policies become more aggressive to open land for whites.
Notions of freedom and labor: the rebellion accelerates a redefinition of freedom around land ownership and control by the planter elite; the transition to a slave-based labor system is accelerated to prevent further white uprisings.
Significance: Bacon’s Rebellion illustrates how class conflict, land hunger, and labor economies interact to reshape labor regimes and political power in the Chesapeake.
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The shift to a slave-based labor system (1680–1700):
Declining English emigration and lower death rates lead to labor shortages; planters turn to enslaved Africans for a more permanent labor force.
The ending of a Royal Africa Company monopoly opens the market to more slave traders, reducing costs and expanding slave importation.
By 1700, Black people constitute more than 10% of Virginia’s population; by 1750, they approach 50% in some regions.
The 1705 slave code (and broader legal framework):
Codes consolidate previous laws, embed white supremacy, make Blacks a permanent class of property, and restrict rights across the board (contact rules, arms, trial rights, etc.).
The legal system formalizes a two-tier society with separate legal jurisdictions for Blacks and whites.
Notions of freedom: the concept of freedom increasingly becomes linked to land ownership and social status for whites, while enslaved people remain permanently bound. The fear of slave conspiracies reinforces harsh surveillance and oppression.
Significance: marks the formal institutionalization of racialized chattel slavery as a central pillar of the Chesapeake economy and social order.
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Demographic shifts and political changes in Virginia (1700–1750):
The proportion of enslaved people grows rapidly; free Black populations are still present but increasingly restricted.
The growth of slavery helps explain the divergence between the Chesapeake and Northern colonies in labor systems, social structure, and political power.
The broader colonial crisis context continues: the threat of slave revolts and conspiracies prompts elite consolidation of power and stricter slave codes.
Notions of freedom and social order: freedom for whites is increasingly tied to property and political influence; freedom for Blacks is increasingly limited to avenues outside of formal recognition (e.g., manumission becomes rarer, and legal pathways to freedom narrow).
Significance: underlines how labor systems shape race relations and political power in colonial America.
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The Glorious Revolution and its colonial repercussions (1688–1689):
In England, Parliament asserts supremacy; William of Orange challenges James II; Parliament enacts the Bill of Rights (1689) to restrict the powers of the crown and affirm rights of Parliament and individuals (e.g., trial by jury).
The Toleration Act (1689–1690s) grants Protestant Dissenters freedom to worship (but excludes Catholics from holding public office).
In the colonies, these events reinforce English liberties as a shared heritage with the mother country but differ in practice; some colonies enjoy more religious freedom (Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Carolina) than others.
Widespread religious reform and tolerance: the Glorious Revolution solidifies Protestant political order, elevates Anglican and Presbyterian establishments in many colonies, and cultivates debates about religious liberty and governance.
Notable consequences for the colonists:
A transatlantic sense of liberty and legality is reinforced, shaping colonial political culture.
The revolution helps to secure Protestant supremacy in most colonies, though Rhode Island and Pennsylvania maintain relatively liberal religious climates.
Significance: demonstrates how political transformation in England reverberates through colonial governance, religious policy, and concepts of liberty.
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The Salem Witch Trials (1692):
Context: heightened anxiety about Indian warfare and social change in Massachusetts; fear of witches as agents of harm; girls suffer fits and nightmares; Tituba (an Indigenous enslaved woman) among the accused.
Prosecution expands rapidly: nearly 150 people prosecuted; most were women; 14 women and 5 men hanged; one man crushed for refusing to plead.
Resolution: governor dissolves the Salem court; some accused are released; Increase Mather’s treatise warns against relying on spectral evidence; the trials contribute to a shift toward rationalism and scientific inquiry.
The broader significance: the witch trials illustrate how social anxiety, gender norms, and fear of social instability can manifest as legal persecutions; they contribute to later rejection of witchcraft prosecutions and a move toward empirical explanations.
The War on Indians and disease: epidemic shocks and frontier violence shape perceptions of danger and affect colonial governance.
Significance: the Salem trials become a symbolic watershed in American legal and cultural history, highlighting tensions between religious zeal and burgeoning Enlightenment thinking.
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The Growth of Colonial America (overview):
Post-crisis growth after late-seventeenth-century turmoil: urbanization, population growth, and expansion to the west; Atlantic world integration deepens as England, France, Spain, and the Dutch contest for wealth and power.
Population dynamics: the colonial population grows from about 265,000 in 1700 to over 2.3 million by 1770 (a tenfold increase) due to natural increase and immigration; Indigenous populations decline due to disease and displacement.
Diversity becomes a hallmark: strong regional differences; large segments of the population are non-English European immigrants; African slavery expands; Indigenous groups survive but are displaced.
The “diverse population” theme: in 1700, most colonists were English; later centuries see large additions from Scotland, Ulster, Germany, the Netherlands, and other places; the slave trade expands substantially.
The origins of immigration: most migrants to the colonies come as indentured servants, but this changes in the eighteenth century with increased slave labor and a broader pattern of voluntary immigration.
Significance: this page highlights demographic and cultural shifts that set up social and economic patterns in the eighteenth century.
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Origins and status of migrants to British North American colonies (1700–1775): Table 3.1 highlights:
Indentured Servants, Slaves, Convicts, Free Africans, etc., by origin (e.g., Africa, Ireland, Germany, England/Wales, Scotland, Other).
Notable figures: total migrants ~585,800; free Africans ~151,600; slaves ~103,600; indentured servants ~278,400; convicts ~0 (in the displayed data).
Observations from Table 3.1:
The vast majority of early 18th-century migrants were indentured servants from the British Isles and Europe; enslaved Africans were a smaller share initially but would grow dramatically in the Chesapeake and the Caribbean.
German and Scottish immigration contribute to religious and linguistic diversity; many settle in frontier areas (New York, western Pennsylvania, backcountry).
Significance: quantitative snapshot illustrating the shift in labor force composition and the resulting social-cultural mosaic of the colonies.
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The German Migration and Religious Diversity:
Germans (approx. 110,000) form the largest continental group; many come seeking religious freedom (Lutherans, Mennonites, Moravians, Dunkers, etc.) and land opportunities.
German settlers tend to arrive as entire families and settle in frontier areas (western Pennsylvania, frontier New York, and the southern backcountry).
Religious Diversity & Toleration:
By mid-eighteenth century, most colonies maintain established churches (Anglican or Congregational) funded by taxes, but de facto toleration expands for Protestants; Catholics and Jews face restrictions on office-holding.
The Great Awakening (beginnings sketched here) signals a future shift toward broader religious revival and the expansion of non-established denominations.
Significance: demonstrates how religious diversity and settlement patterns interact to shape social life, governance, and culture in the colonies.
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Religious landscape in the eighteenth century:
Most colonies retain established churches, and taxation often funds ministers; Catholics and Jews face political restrictions; however, de facto toleration grows with new congregations, including Baptists and methodists formed during the Great Awakening (to be discussed in Chapter 4).
The Great Awakening is foreshadowed as a major religious revival transforming the religious landscape and contributing to broader ideas about liberty of conscience.
Liberty of conscience:
A recurring theme; newer immigrants emphasize personal religious choice and voluntary worship; this fosters a pluralistic religious environment.
Notable observation: a German visitor describes the religious assortment in Pennsylvania (Lutherans, Reformed, Catholics, Quakers, Mennonites, Moravians, Pietists, Seventh Day Baptists, Dunkers, Presbyterians, Jews, Muslims, etc.).
Significance: illustrates how religious diversity pressures political and social norms, contributing to evolving ideas about religious liberty and pluralism in the colonies.
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Voices of Freedom and the Life of Indentured Servants:
The letters from Elizabeth Sprigs (1756) depict the hardship of indentured servitude: living conditions, lack of clothing, poverty, and brutal labor.
The excerpt underscores the desperation and limited rights of indentured servants who sought relief from their masters but faced severe constraints.
Indentured servitude in the broader Atlantic world:
The system links Virginia and Maryland to Britain and Europe through debt-based contracts; a significant portion of European migrants arrived as bound laborers who forfeited freedom for passage.
Significance: provides a personal perspective on the lived experience of bound labor and the social realities behind the labor system described in earlier pages.
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Indian life in transition and policy in the eighteenth century:
Indian communities are integrated into the British imperial system; new tribes (e.g., Catawba, Creek Confederacy) arise from remnants; Indians participate in imperial wars as allies and fighters.
The chain of friendship (William Penn) remains a guiding principle in relations with Indians, but the Walking Purchase (1737) reveals the frailty and deceit in treaties, showing colonial manipulation of Indian land rights.
Penn’s land policy (Chain of Friendship) is repeatedly tested by frontier pressures and population growth.
Regional shifts in Indian-white relations:
In Pennsylvania, the Walking Purchase leads to increased conflict; the Lenni Lenape feel betrayed as land is claimed beyond what was anticipated.
By 1760, Pennsylvania’s population surge catalyzes displacement and mistrust; Indians long for the era of fair treatment under William Penn.
Significance: underscores how settler expansion and frontier policy reshape Native-white relations and drive inter-cultural conflict.
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Regional Diversity by mid-eighteenth century:
Backcountry (central PA to the Shenandoah Valley; up through NC/SC): rapid growth; small farms; later slaveownership among some planters; land hunger drives westward expansion.
Older Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania): more commerce-oriented; mixed economies; use of wage labor, tenant farming, and some slavery.
New York’s growth lags due to landholding patterns; Pennsylvania becomes known as “the best poor man’s country” due to cheap land and religious toleration.
The Consumer Revolution: Great Britain becomes the leading producer of inexpensive consumer goods; artisans and craftsmen gain opportunities; the movement from home production to market-oriented production expands.
Atlantic trade and shipbuilding:
The colonies supply raw materials to Britain and the West Indies; London-based bankers finance the slave trade and imperial commerce; ships built in New England constitute a large portion of the empire’s fleet.
Significance: shows how regional economies adapt to global trade networks and how consumer culture grows in parallel with labor and land policies.
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The Growth of Colonial America and the Elite’s rise:
A powerful colonial elite emerges, though without a formal aristocracy; elites control political institutions and land ownership.
The mechanism of power includes land grants, control of vestries, county courts, and colonial legislatures (e.g., Virginia’s House of Burgesses with concentrated power in the gentry).
The absence of a true aristocracy in America prevents a rigid hierarchy, but wealthy families (De Lanceys, Livingstons, Van Rensselaers; Penns; other southern planters) shape politics.
Anglicization: elites mimic English social norms (etiquette, fashion, education, arms, coats of arms); education and travel to Britain reinforce prestige; debt among planters grows as they attempt to maintain aristocratic lifestyles.
The South Carolina aristocracy: wealth concentrated among a few families; Charleston as a center for urban and cultural life; high per capita wealth in Charleston District relative to other regions.
Significance: highlights how colonial elites reproduce and adapt English social structures to American conditions; emphasizes a regional hierarchy based on land, wealth, and social capital rather than titled aristocracy.
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The Colonial Elite in broader terms:
The elite controls the political and social life across colonies; but there is a wide distribution of land ownership for small farmers; wages and property rights shape the middle class.
Urban and artisanal life:
The rise of skilled trades and crafts (e.g., Benjamin Franklin’s “A trade is an estate” mentality) creates a middle class of artisans who gain influence through mastery, business acumen, and social networks.
The example of Myer Myers (New York City) illustrates a diversified economy where artisans belong to a cosmopolitan, multi-ethnic elite (Dutch Jewish craftsmanship, religious pluralism).
The Atlantic World and American colonies:
Emphasis on the interconnectedness across the Atlantic: sugar, tobacco, and other colonial products move across continents; London finances slavery and trade; American colonies form a major overseas market for English goods.
Shipbuilding remains a major enterprise in the colonies; English mercantile policy fosters growth of maritime industry.
Significance: shows how a multiethnic and relatively mobile elite emerges within the colonial system, and how global trade networks shape local economies and identities.
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The Middle Ranks and social structure:
The majority of free Americans are small landholders; two-thirds of free male population are farmers who own land; land ownership is central to political and social status.
The high value placed on landownership fosters resistance to land-holding constraints and emphasizes independence as a core American value.
Women and the household economy:
Women contribute to family labor; the household is the economic unit; women’s work includes cooking, cleaning, sewing, butter making, and agricultural support.
Primogeniture (inheritance by oldest son) is common in many colonies; women’s legal and economic standing declines with time, especially in terms of legal representation and property rights.
Legal practice and court representation shift toward male lawyers; women’s visibility in legal matters decreases as judicial affairs formalize.
The Rise of the Virginia gentry:
A tight-knit gentry dominates provincial government; families like the Lees hold leadership positions; patronage networks shape governance and policy.
Anglicization and social order:
Elites imitate English manners, politics, and culture; the desire to emulate English aristocracy is strong, but the colonial system lacks a clear hereditary aristocracy.
Poverty and mobility:
Poverty exists, especially among the landless and enslaved; workhouses and “warning out” policies limit newcomers who lack resources.
Significance: outlines the social ladder, gender roles, and class tensions; connects to political culture and the formation of a distinct colonial identity influenced by English norms but adapted to American conditions.
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The South Carolina aristocracy (expanded):
The Charleston elite live lavishly with imported goods, luxury furniture, and a slave-holding culture; wealth concentration is high; the top 10% own half the wealth in 1770.
The lifestyle and social structures are imitated from English gentry; the social order emphasizes hierarchy, patronage, and conspicuous display.
The Virginia gentry continues to exercise political power:
The “cousinocracy” describes the tight-knit circle of families that control the vestries, county courts, and legislative bodies; intermarriage strengthens political alliances; Thomas Jefferson and George Washington are presented as exemplars of the gentry’s rise and continuity.
The idea of liberty and its limits:
Elites define liberty as the power to rule and the right of the wealthy to dominate others; the social order relies on networks of patronage and deference.
Significance: deepens understanding of how regional aristocracies use cultural capital to preserve influence and how debates about liberty are entangled with property and power.
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The social order and etiquette of colonial elites:
The elite’s idea of refinement and noble manners is used to legitimize wealth and political power; decorative arts, education, and leisure serve as symbols of status.
The relationship between “superiority” and dependency is framed in public discourse; elites use culture and fashion to signal legitimacy of leadership.
The view of work as a marker of social class:
Freedom from labor is a sign of aristocratic status; labor is associated with commoners and slaves.
The growth of urban and political culture:
The elite’s control of political institutions (e.g., colonial legislatures) ensures that governance reflects their interests and values.
Significance: highlights the cultural dimensions of class (fashion, arts, manners) and how they intersect with political power in the colonial era.
Page 32
Poverty and the middle ranks continued:
The middle ranks include many small landholders and dependent workers; poverty persists among the lower orders, including wage laborers in cities and tenants on farms.
The emergence of a land-based freedom ideal shapes political ideology—landownership is a prerequisite for full citizenship and political influence.
Women and the household economy (deeper):
Women’s labor is central to household survival; as consumer markets expand, women’s roles adapt but remain disproportionately centered on sustaining households.
Freedom and unfreedom in the eighteenth century:
The colonies combine high degrees of personal and economic freedom for many whites with the persistent bondage of enslaved Africans and the vulnerability of indentured servants.
Regional diversity:
North vs. South contrasts in land distribution, slavery, urbanization, and economies reveal a mosaic of social orders across British America.
Significance: synthesizes class structure, gender roles, and regional differences into a nuanced portrait of colonial society.
Page 33
North America at mid-century:
The colonies exhibit a wide range of social orders: Pueblo villages in the Southwest; tobacco and rice plantations in the Chesapeake; small family farms in New England; feudal-like estates in some Hudson River areas; fur-trading frontier posts.
Elites closely connected to imperial centers; a growing number of ordinary colonists experience greater freedom (vote, own land, worship freely) than typical Europeans of the era.
The growth of consumer society and per capita income; high birthrates; relatively long life expectancies; yet many face limited mobility due to land scarcity and slavery.
The paradox of freedom and unfreedom:
Universal longings for freedom exist alongside entrenched systems of unfreedom (slavery, indenture, and debt-bondage).
The Atlantic world and identity:
The colonies’ identity forms through Atlantic trade, migration, and cultural exchange; the empire’s networks knit together diverse populations with varying experiences of liberty and labor.
Significance: captures the complexity of colonial society—its diversity, economic dynamism, and the tension between liberty and bondage.
Page 34
Suggested readings (selected titles across topics):
Bailyn, Bernard. The Peopling of British North America (1986).
Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (1998).
Bushman, Richard. The Refinement of America (1992).
Dayton, Cornelia H. Women before the Bar (1995).
Jordan, Winthrop D. White over Black (1968).
Kidd, Thomas S. The Great Awakening (2007).
Kulikoff, Allan. Tobacco and Slaves (1986).
Lemon, James T. The Best Poor Man’s Country (1972).
Lepore, Jill. The Name of War: King Philip’s War (1998).
Lovejoy, David S. The Glorious Revolution in America (1972).
Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power (1985).
Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom (1975).
Norton, Mary Beth. In the Devil’s Snare (2002).
Saxton, Martha. Being Good (2003).
Websites:
The Atlantic Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Americas: hitchcock.itc.virginia.edu/Slavery/index.php
Afro-Louisiana History and Genealogy: www.ibiblio.org/laslave/
Significance: these readings offer deeper analyses of population movements, slavery, religion, gender, and social structure, and provide broader context for the themes covered in the pages above.
Key Formulas and Data (LaTeX formatting)
Mercantilist balance condition (conceptual):
ext{Exports} > ext{Imports}
Land grants under Carolina’s headright system (example figures):
150\ ext{acres per arriving family member}
100\ ext{acres per indentured male servant who completes term}
Population and casualty figures referenced for King Philip’s War:
ext{Settlers} \approx 9{,}000; \, \text{Indians} \approx 3{,}000 \ ( ext{out of } 52{,}000 ext{ settlers and } 20{,}000 ext{ Indians})
Slavery demographics in the early Chesapeake:
By 1700, Black population > 10% of Virginia’s population; by 1750, approaching 50% in some regions.
Walking Purchase (1737) term: the distance a man could walk in 36 hours to define land cession area.
This page-by-page set of notes covers the major and minor points, people, events, and concepts across Pages 1–34 of the transcript. It emphasizes the evolution of governance, economy, labor systems, religion, and social hierarchy in British North America from 1660 to 1750, tying together mercantilist policy, colonization patterns, slavery, and regional differences. It also highlights the interconnections between Atlantic world dynamics and colonial life, and includes a set of suggested readings and a few key data points suitable for exam-style recall.