Contesting Futures: America in the 1960s

CHAPTER 29 Contesting Futures: America in the 1960s

Figure 29.1: Aaron Shikler’s official portrait of John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1970) depicts him with arms folded, hinting at deep contemplation. It was commissioned by his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, and reflects the complex emotions surrounding his legacy seven years after his assassination.

Chapter Outline

29.1 The Kennedy Promise

29.2 Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society

29.3 The Civil Rights Movement Marches On

29.4 Challenging the Status Quo

Introduction

  • The 1960s symbolized a decade of hope, transformation, and conflict that marked a significant cultural shift in America.
  • The period was characterized by attempts from citizens of diverse backgrounds to broaden the American promise, revealing the fractures in national unity.
  • Ethnic groups worked towards creating a more equitable society. Concurrently, the U.S. sought a proactive global influence, illustrated starkly by its involvement in Vietnam, highlighting contradictions within U.S. foreign policy.
  • Kennedy's election sparked aspirations for progress among both the middle class and marginalized populations, but his assassination, along with those of key figures like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, starkly illustrated divisions within American democracy.

29.1 The Kennedy Promise

  • Learning Objectives:
    • Assess Kennedy’s Cold War strategy.
    • Describe Kennedy’s contributions to the civil rights movement.

The Political Context of the 1950s

  • Eisenhower's era emphasized conformity and was hesitant towards rapid change.
  • The 1960s saw an acceleration of societal changes driven by World War II veterans and baby boomers, impacting politics, culture, and the economy.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy: A Symbol of Change

  • Kennedy emerged as a youthful, energetic symbol of hope and transformation.
  • The New Frontier: He defined this vision during the Democratic National Convention, linking aspirations with the country’s pressing challenges.
  • Background: Son of Joseph P. Kennedy (wealthy businessman, ambassador). Educated at Harvard.
    • Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1946, then to the Senate in 1952.
    • His war hero status (rescuing PT boat crew) bolstered his political standing.

Kennedy’s Political Style

  • His charismatic image was complemented by First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy’s elegance and cultural focus (French cuisine, classical music).
  • JFK's health issues were largely unknown, contrasting with his vibrant public persona.

The First Televised Presidential Debate

  • The first Kennedy-Nixon debate (September 23, 1960) marked a pivotal moment in American politics, with 70 million viewers.
  • Nixon appeared unwell, leading viewers to perceive Kennedy as the stronger candidate despite Nixon's radio support.

Concerns About Kennedy’s Background

  • Fears about Kennedy's Catholicism affecting his presidential decisions.
  • Southern Democrats wary of his civil rights stance.
  • Lyndon B. Johnson (Protestant Texan) added to the ticket for Southern support.

Election and Inauguration

  • Kennedy won the presidency by a narrow margin (0.01%) among over 67 million votes, emphasizing a significant Electoral College victory.
  • Kennedy's inaugural address, calling for civic involvement, included his famous challenge: “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”

Domestic Achievements

  • Kennedy's domestic reforms faced challenges from his limited Electoral College mandate, notably in civil rights legislation.
  • Key accomplishments included:
    • Expanded unemployment benefits.
    • Initiated food stamp programs.
    • Extended school lunch programs.
    • Supported the Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act in 1963.

Foreign Policy: The Cold Warrior

  • Kennedy concentrated on foreign policy, promising to defend the interests of the “free world” during the Cold War.
  • His administration pursued aggressive defense and technological advancements, particularly in response to the Soviets' lead in the space race.
  • Launched the Alliance for Progress and established the Peace Corps as part of soft power strategies to counter Soviet influences in developing nations.
  • Advocated for a flexible response to conflicts, including the establishment of U.S. Special Forces (Green Berets).

Kennedy and Cuba

  • Tensions with Cuba escalated under Kennedy.
  • The Bay of Pigs invasion (April 1961), aimed at overthrowing Fidel Castro, failed catastrophically due to lack of vital air support.
  • The Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962) saw Kennedy demand missile removal and establish a naval quarantine of Cuba, leading to a near-nuclear confrontation.
  • Resulted in a communication “hotline” between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and the Limited Test Ban Treaty to curb nuclear testing.

Vietnam

  • U.S. Involvement in Vietnam: Kennedy continued Eisenhower's policies, providing support to South Vietnam's government led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
  • The U.S. escalated military presence, culminating in over 16,000 troops supporting Diem’s wavering regime.
  • This involvement sowed the seeds of future escalation.

Tentative Steps Toward Civil Rights

  • Kennedy’s administration began to address racial equality as a strategy to gain international standing.
  • His actions included supporting civil rights initiatives and securing the release of civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr.
  • Hesitant to push for full civil rights legislation due to fears of alienating Southern Democrats.

Major Civil Rights Actions

  • Advocacy for a constitutional amendment to abolish poll taxes and increased focus on voting rights for African Americans.
  • Responded to James Meredith’s enrollment struggles at the University of Mississippi by deploying federal forces to ensure his registration.
  • Introduced desegregation measures, although Kennedy did not live to see the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Tragedy in Dallas

  • Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, as his motorcade passed through Dallas, leading to Lee Harvey Oswald's arrest.
  • Warren Commission concluded that Oswald acted alone, though many conspiracy theories proliferated.

29.2 Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society

  • Learning Objectives:
    • Describe major accomplishments of Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society.
    • Identify advances in civil rights legislation.
    • Explain Johnson’s escalation in Vietnam.

Johnson’s Vision

  • Took office following Kennedy’s assassination, asserting commitment to fulfill his predecessor's goals while expanding federal government roles in economic opportunity and civil rights.
  • Great Society: Envisioned as a society where economic opportunity and civil rights were guaranteed to all.

Legislative Milestones

  • Johnson