Approaches to research (2)

APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

Unit 2

Introduction

  • Approaches to social enquiry vary.

  • Mixed Methods: Combines at least one quantitative method and one qualitative method in measurement, collection, or analysis of data; increasingly used to strengthen validity of research findings.

  • Research Methodology Components:

    • Theoretical perspectives guiding research.

    • Tools and techniques for data collection.

    • Methods of data analysis.

  • Theoretical foundations guide both quantitative and qualitative research.

  • Role of Research:

    • Promotes scientific and inductive thinking.

    • Aids logical thinking and organization.

    • Example: Research in Economics examines relationships among variables to address complex issues.

    • Serves as a source for developing policy suggestions for businesses, government, and social organizations.

Research Methodology

  • Research Methodology encompasses three main elements:

    1. Theoretical Perspectives: Guides research and logic of enquiry.

    2. Tools and Techniques: Practical aspects of collecting data, organizing, and analyzing.

    3. Methods of Data Analysis: Statistical techniques to establish relationships between variables and evaluate results.

  • Significance: All three elements are essential; inadequate knowledge in any area hampers data collection and analysis.

Theoretical Perspectives

  • Paradigm:

    • A comprehensive belief system that guides research.

  • Components of a Paradigm:

    • Philosophy of science addressing ontology (nature of truth/reality) and epistemology (how we know what exists).

    • Worldview and framework guiding research practices.

  • Methodological Prescriptions: Tools for data collection and analysis under a specific paradigm.

Research Approaches in Social Science

  • Four Paradigms:

    • Realism, Constructivism, Pragmatism, Positivism/Post-Positivism, Critical Theory, and Interpretivism.

  • Key Features:

    • Differentiation in the concept of reality.

    • Varied purposes for conducting research.

    • Different tools for data collection.

    • Diverse methods for deriving meanings from data.

    • Variance in the relationship between research and practice.

Three Approaches and Their Significance

  • Realism: Assumes existence of a real world independent of perceptions.

  • Constructivism: Posits that reality is derived from unique individual experiences and viewpoints.

  • Pragmatism: Views realism and constructivism as alternate understandings of the world, prioritizing practical actions and consequences over the nature of reality.

  • Knowledge of these perspectives informs researchers on:

    • Research problems and questions.

    • Strategies for addressing these questions.

    • Appropriate social enquiry approaches and relevant theories.

    • Types and sources of data, alongside methods for collection and analysis.

APPROACHES TO RESEARCH STUDY TYPES

Broad Demarcation of Approaches

  • Quantitative Research:

    • Follows positivism/post-positivism/realism frameworks.

    • Integrates deductive, objective, and generalized purposes and procedures.

    • Emphasizes construction of general theories, large sample sizes, and controlled procedures.

  • Qualitative Research:

    • Aligns with critical theory and interpretivism.

    • Employs inductive, subjective, and contextual methodologies.

    • Focuses on evolving meanings through close researcher-participant interactions.

Quantitative Sub-classifications

  • Inferential Approach: Utilizes surveys to draw inferences on variable relationships.

  • Experimental Approach: Controls over research environment; manipulates variables to observe effects.

  • Simulation Approach: Uses numerical models to generate data in an artificial environment.

Qualitative Approach Characteristics

  • Engages in subjective assessment of attitudes and behaviors.

  • Generates results in non-quantitative formats or less rigorous quantitative forms.

  • Techniques include group discussions and in-depth interviews.

  • Mixed Methods: Combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches in research.

Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

  • Qualitative Approach:

    • Data from participant observation, semi-structured interviews, etc.

    • Open questions fostering two-way communication.

    • Information maximization guides respondent selection; unique respondents.

  • Quantitative Approach:

    • Data from structured surveys, questionnaires, etc.

    • Closed questions, predefined answer categories, random sample selection.

Research Strategies in Social Research

  • Schedulers by Paradigm:

    • Positivism: Induction starts with data collection for generalization.

    • Post-Positivism/Realism: Deduction begins with theory to gather data.

    • Critical Realism: Retroduction starts with a hypothetical model.

    • Interpretivism: Abduction lays out concepts and meanings from social activities.

Questions for Reflection

  1. Distinction between research methodology and methods.

  2. How research perspectives aid researchers in social sciences.

  3. Differences between retroductive and abductive strategies.

Positivist Philosophy of Science

  • Known as logical positivism, developed in the early 20th century.

  • Opposes metaphysics unverified by experience; focuses on empiricism where experience is the knowledge source.

Central Tenets of Positivism

  • Science aims at observation (what is the case?) and demonstration (why things must be).

  • Emphasizes induction for definitions and deduction for demonstrations.

  • Science progresses through observation and theory accumulation, established via inductive reasoning.

Critique of Positivism

  • Issues with relevance and observation selection; observations presuppose an overarching knowledge structure.

  • Interdependence between observations and theory; observations demand legitimacy via theoretical frameworks.

Class Assignments

  • Group presentations/debates on:

    • Karl Popper's hypothetico-deductive model and critiques.

    • Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigms and critiques.

Types of Research

  • Categories:

    • Basic (fundamental) vs. Applied.

    • Descriptive vs. Analytical.

    • Empirical vs. Exploratory.

    • Quantitative vs. Qualitative.

    • Explanatory (causal) vs. Longitudinal.

Combination Based on Purpose

  • Exploratory Research: Investigates new phenomena.

  • Descriptive Research: Tests existing phenomena, hypotheses.

  • Experimental Research: Establishes causal relationships.

Fundamental vs. Applied Research

  • Fundamental Research: Seeks knowledge for its own sake; rejects/supports existing theories.

  • Applied Research: Applies theoretical findings to solve practical issues.

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

  • Descriptive Research: Describes current states and relies on survey data, minimal variable control.

  • Analytical Research: Critically evaluates existing information to derive generalizations; systematic analysis.

Empirical vs. Exploratory Research

  • Empirical Research: Relies on verifiable observations; data-driven.

  • Exploratory Research: Qualitative, formulates/hypothesizes about unclear phenomena; useful in uncovering deeper issues.

Explanatory vs. Longitudinal Research

  • Explanatory Research: Investigates causes and effects of social phenomena.

  • Longitudinal Research: Studies phenomena over time, tracing trends.

Further Readings

  • Mukherji, P.N. 2000. Methodology in Social Research: Dilemmas and Perspectives. Sage Publications: New Delhi.

  • Srivastava, Vinay Kumar (ed.) 2004. Methodology and Fieldwork. Oxford University Press: New Delhi.