Comprehensive Introduction to Art History: Methodology, Formal Analysis, and Context
The Central Aim and Methodology of Art History
The primary goal of art history is to contextualize each object made by humans.
Every human-made object is a unique collaboration of context and circumstances. While humanity can create virtually anything with available materials, the central question for historians is why a specific object was created in its particular form.
Most archaeological work occurs in two specific locations:
Burial Sites: People are historically buried with their most expensive and valued possessions.
Trash Heaps (Dumps): Locations such as the Trinidad dump provide extensive ecological and historical data.
Archaeological Reconstruction: Hypothetical Scenarios
The Desk Lamp Case Study:
Clues for function include the hinges on the arm (indicating articulation), the flat base (indicating the object was intended to sit on a table), and the specific shape meant to house a light bulb.
Context changes the object: If the base were missing, one might assume it was a prosthetic for an arm. If the concept of a light bulb was unknown, the interpretation would change entirely.
Soil analysis can detect the "fossil" of metal objects even if the metal has completely rusted away, allowing historians to identify the exact type of metal used.
The Typewriter (Underwood) Case Study:
Technological context: Without knowledge of modern computing, a future archaeologist might wonder if this was the "first Internet."
Physical attributes: Many symbols on typewriter keys are labels on paper rather than being engraved or raised, which may not survive over time.
Alternative interpretations: An object like this might be mistaken for a musical instrument (due to the tactile/banging nature of the keys), a stamper, or a base-number translation machine (given there are keys at the top and in the center).
Ritual and Spiritual Attribution in Archaeology
When researchers pull an object from the field and cannot determine its practical function after observing signs of use (such as oil from human hands), they categorize it as "ritualistic" or "spiritual" approximately of the time.
Objects like a typewriter could be interpreted as meditative or penitential devices (e.g., the act of typing as a form of spiritual penance).
Contextualizing the Object: Analytical Categories
Artist/Creator: This includes artists, artisans, tool makers, craftsmen, and architects.
Title: Identifiers found in archives or records (e.g., "Underwood").
Subject Matter: What is being displayed within the work (e.g., four people standing in a line).
Age:
Determined through stratigraphy: Finding an object under another structure with a known date, such as a railroad.
Scholarship and writing: Comparing objects to historical records of production periods.
Scientific/Chemical methods: Carbon- dating or chemical analysis of dyes and materials produced during specific eras.
Patron: The individual or entity who pays for the work to be made.
The patron is a fundamental part of the creative process.
The patron usually provides the subject matter (e.g., a painting of a dog or a government memorial), while the artist determines the style.
Cultural Bound Blindness (Bias): The inability to see objects or artwork clearly and objectively if they originate from a different culture or time.
Example: Norse knives found above doorways were once thought to be ritualistic; they were likely placed there to keep them out of reach of children or for home defense.
Example: Roman dodecahedra were long debated as ritual objects, but fiber artists have suggested they function as tools for knitting gloves.
Formal Analysis: The Elements of Art
The elements of art are the "atoms" or fundamental building blocks used to describe work to someone who cannot see it.
Line: A path traced by a moving point.
Attributes include weight (thin or thick), direction (horizontal, vertical, diagonal), and movement.
Implied Lines: Visual paths created by the arrangement of shapes that lead the eye in a specific direction or circle.
Shape and Mass:
Shape: Describes a two-dimensional () object or flat surface.
Mass: Describes a three-dimensional () form or the illusion of it.
Chiaroscuro: The illusion of three-dimensionality on a surface through shading.
Light and Value: Refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color (also called "tone").
Color:
Hue: The literal name of the color (e.g., yellow, purple).
Saturation: The purity or intensity of the color. High saturation is "candy-colored," while low saturation is dulled by adding complementary colors.
Texture and Pattern:
True Texture: The actual physical feel of the surface (e.g., smooth, grippy, spiky).
Represented Texture: The visual illusion of a surface (e.g., a painting that looks like skin or fabric).
Pattern: A repeated element (line, shape, mass, tone, or color) that loops.
Space and Perspective:
Linear Perspective: A mathematical system rediscovered in the Renaissance to create an illusion of space using a horizon line and vanishing points.
Types include one-point perspective and two-point perspective.
Principles of Design: The Molecules of Composition
Composition: The way elements of art are arranged using principles of design.
Balance: The visual weight across a piece. Darker colors, patterns, and high contrast contribute to visual weight.
Emphasis and Subordination: Creating a focal point (emphasis) and making other areas less prominent (subordination).
Scale and Proportion:
Scale: The size of an object relative to another (e.g., a human next to a giant chicken).
Proportion: How the size of parts within a single object relate to each other (e.g., the size of a head on a body).
Rhythm: The flow of the work. It can be repetitive and "boring" (like a baseline) or organic and complex (like jazz).
Case Study: Francisco Goya, The Third of May
Historical Context: During the Napoleonic era, Napoleon made a deal with the Prince of Spain to overthrow the King. Napoleon subsequently betrayed the Prince and occupied Spain. In May , the people of Spain rose up and were slaughtered by French soldiers.
Formal Analysis of the Painting:
Visual Weight/Emphasis: The right side of the painting has higher value (light), higher saturation, and higher contrast, drawing the eye to the central figure.
Implied Lines: The gun barrels of the soldiers point directly at the central figure, acting as visual guides.
Shape Contrast: The Spanish victims are depicted with organic, falling shapes, while the central figure is geometric, resembling a cross.
Soldiers: Depicted without faces to represent them as impersonal, inhuman killing machines.
Symbolism: The man in white and yellow represents innocence and sanctity, an allegory for Jesus Christ/a martyr sacrificing himself.
Time and Motion: Goya depicts multiple stages of the execution simultaneously to show motion: one man pleading, one man reeling back from the shot, and bodies falling forward into a pile.
Background: The dark church and castle symbolize the complicity or failure of the church and the royal family during the atrocity.
Goya’s Later Career: After serving as the court painter, Goya eventually went blind and lived as a recluse. He created the "Black Paintings" directly on the walls of his home, which are considered some of the most emotionally charged depictions of the worst aspects of humanity.
Questions & Discussion
Question: If you saw an object with hinges, an arm, and a flat base, what would you think it was for?
Response: Clues include looking at the hinges on the arm, the way it moves, the flat base, and the shape from the light bulb that likely no longer exists.
Question: What if the future society has lower technology and doesn't know copper is a good conducting element?
Response: They would not understand it was for electricity. Or, if they were very advanced, they might view it as an antiquated use of copper.
Question: Regarding the typewriter, what would you think it was if you didn't connect it to a keyboard?
Response: Suggestions included a musical instrument like a piano because the keys "bang," a stamper for documents, or a device for translation or mathematical counting based on the layout of the keys.
Question: Is there going to be slides posted for every single one [lecture]?
Response: The class will not typically follow a traditional lecture format. Instead, individual resources, such as videos for specific images, will be provided for study.