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Confucius – Comprehensive Study Notes

The Confucius of History

  • Historical recovery sources are limited to post-Confucius texts and spans from a few decades to several centuries after his life.
    • Confucius lived 551-479\ \mathrm{BCE} (traditionally dated).
  • Appearances in Chinese texts signal popularity among literate elites during the following periods:
    • Warring States (403–221 BCE)
    • Qin (221–206 BCE)
    • Han (206 BCE–220 CE)
  • Confucius’ birthplace and life: born in the state of Lu on the Shandong peninsula in northeastern China; known chiefly from texts dating to the Warring States period.
  • Core social position: a shi (retainer/knight) who became itinerant, learned, and court-adjacent; shi culture helped him gather disciples and exchange master-disciple dialogues later recorded in the Analects.
  • The Analects as the traditional source for Confucius’ life and teaching, though its origins are debated among scholars.
  • The historical Confucius vs. the later mythologized figure: the former is a historical philosopher; the latter becomes a symbol through texts and ritual practices.
  • The Analects claim to record master-disciple exchanges and the transmission of tradition rather than the invention of new doctrines.

The Confucius of the Analects

  • The Analects portrays Confucius as someone who “transmits, but does not innovate” (7.1).
    • He claimed to transmit the Dao (Way) of Zhou sages and to urge disciples to emulate the sages of the past to restore moral integrity to the state.
  • The Analects presents multiple, complementary concerns rather than a single system
    • Theodicy
    • Harmonious order
    • Moral force (de)
    • Self-cultivation

Theodicy

  • Theodicy in Confucius’ thought is framed within a theistic-ethical context rather than a theological system.
  • Confucius inherits religious sensibilities from late Zhou culture, including belief in Tian (Heaven).
  • Death of Zhou divination in practice, but Tian remains a concept to discern will and moral order; he upholds sacrifices to “gods and ghosts” as compatible with transmitting noble tradition.
  • The Analects record his silence on the divine in some passages (e.g., (5.13), (7.21), (11.12)).
  • Tian’s role in Confucius’ thought: it is aligned with moral order but requires human agents to actualize its will.
  • Threefold assumptions about Tian that remain stable:
    • Tian is aligned with moral goodness.
    • Tian depends on human agents to actualize its will.
    • Its associations with fate and nature are variable and unpredictable.
  • Some passages show Confucius’ personal tension with Tian:
    • (9.5) “If Heaven is about to abandon this culture, those who die afterwards will not share in it; if Heaven has not yet abandoned this culture, what can the men of Guang do to me?”
    • (14.35) “Heaven has abandoned me!”
    • (11.9) “Heaven has abandoned me!”
  • Theodicy takeaway: Confucius wrestles with whether he has Heaven’s support while promoting moral reform.
  • Tian’s functions include fate and nature as well as deity; Tian interacts with human agency in moral governance.
  • Graham’s assessment: Confucius appears to be two-minded about Tian—sometimes protected by Tian, other times despairing about Heaven’s backer.

Harmonious order

  • Because Tian depends on human agents to actualize its will, Confucius emphasizes active moralizing in three interlocking orders:
    • Aesthetic order (taste and cultural refinement)
    • Moral order (virtue and propriety)
    • Social order (hierarchical relations and roles)
  • The instrument to realize all three orders is li (ritual propriety).
  • Key passage: “Do not look at, do not listen to, do not speak of, do not do whatever is contrary to ritual propriety” (12.1).
  • The aim of li is to regulate behavior and reproduce ideal social hierarchies: ruler-subject, parent-child, husband-wife.
  • The threefold order is deeply interconnected with culture, morality, and social organization; it creates harmony when things are in their proper places, making operations effortless and goods readily realized.
  • Filial piety (xiao) is the paramount value, with reverence (jing) as the central quality.
    • (1.11) “Observe what a person has in mind to do when his father is alive, and then observe what he does when his father is dead. If, for three years, he makes no changes to his father’s ways, he can be said to be a good son.”
    • (2.7) Modern critique: “Nowadays, for a person to be filial means no more than that he is able to provide his parents with food… If a person shows no reverence, where is the difference?”
    • (4.18) “In serving your father and mother, you ought to dissuade them from doing wrong in the gentlest way. If you see your advice being ignored, you should not become disobedient but should remain reverent.”
  • The aesthetic dimension is not merely about beauty but embodies moral seriousness; it is an intrinsically moral and harmonious ordering, not a superficial taste category.
  • The wind-and-grass metaphor: the junzi’s moral force is powerful like the wind; the grass (xiaoren) bends to it (12.19).
  • Direct governance principle: “Let the ruler be a ruler, the subject a subject, a father a father, and a son a son” (12.11).
  • Quotation showing governance through moral force and ritual: “Direct the people with moral force and regulate them with ritual, and they will possess shame, and moreover, they will be righteous” (2.3).

Moral force (de)

  • De (moral force) is a central Confucian concept, also connected to the Laozi/Daoist term de (tao te ching).
  • In Confucius’ usage, de is a magical, morally charged power belonging to the virtuous ruler; it is earned by ruling in accord with Tian’s morality.
  • Early Zhou context: de was associated with various charismatic figures; for Confucius, de is the morally efficacious power that secures obedience and legitimacy.
  • The ruler who governs by moral force is likened to the North Star: fixed, guiding others (2.1).
  • De is both a quality and a virtue of the ruler; it derives from Tian and is connected to inner moral disposition (7.23).
  • The ideal social order unites aesthetic, moral, and social aims through de and li to stabilize family, state, and world.

Self-Cultivation

  • Two personae contrasted in the Analects, not on potential but on developed potential: junzi (the gentleman) and xiaoren (the small person).
    • Junzi is associated with ren (ren/jen, benevolence) and yi (rightness).
    • Xiaoren emphasizes profit over moral purpose.
  • Ren (humaneness) and yi (rightness) are central to the junzi’s moral life; ren is sometimes discussed as co-humanity due to its two-part character, combining a person with a notion of two.
  • The junzi’s de is exercised in actions guided by yi; this yields ren in relational, hierarchical social order.
  • Two key Analects passages on self-cultivation:
    • (2.4) “From the age of fifteen on, I have been intent upon learning; from thirty on, I have established myself; from forty on, I have not been confused; from fifty on, I have known the mandate of Heaven; from sixty on, my ear has been attuned; from seventy on, I have followed my heart’s desire without transgressing what is right.”
    • (4.15) “The Master’s Way is nothing but other-regard and self-reflection.”
  • The process of self-cultivation moves from intention (zhi) to learning (xue) to aligning Tianming with yi and ren; it is incremental and lifelong.
  • Two key concepts in self-cultivation:
    • Zhong (zhong) – “other-regard” or loyalty; extended beyond ruler-minister to all relationships; self-commitment to fulfilling one’s relational duties.
    • Shu (shu) – self-reflection; expressed as a negative formulation of the Golden Rule: “What you do not desire for yourself, do not do to others.” (15.24)
  • The self is deeply relational; cultivation is not only inner virtue but outward virtue, contributing to social harmony and cosmic balance.
  • The rejection of a Cartesian mind-body split in early Chinese thought: the self is integrated with the body and social world; cultivation yields a collective ethical and cosmic effect.

The Confucius of Myth

  • Han dynasty produced extensive hagiographies that elevated Confucius to a near-supernatural status: miraculous birth markers, posthumous theophanies, and a cult around his worship.
  • Confucius was portrayed as the destined ruler or “uncrowned king” of pre-imperial China; some myths claim apotheosis and revelation to disciples.
  • Feng Youlan argued that such myths would have placed Confucius on a Christ-like level, transforming Confucianism into a religion if these myths had prevailed.
  • Western mythologizing also occurred as Confucius was Latinized by Jesuit missionaries (Kong-fu-zi → Confucius) and reinterpreted by Enlightenment figures (e.g., Leibniz, Wolff); later critics (e.g., Hegel, Mao) reinterpreted him in new historical light.
  • The myths illustrate how Confucius has served as a cultural symbol beyond his historical thought; each era projects its own values onto him.

The Confucius of the State

  • Mythmaking served the imperial state’s goal of cultural unity and social control.
  • After Qin suppression of Confucians ( Qin, 221–206 BCE ), Han emperors used Confucius as a political legitimation tool; the Five Classics were institutionalized as basis for civil service examinations in 136 BCE, making memorization of these texts and orthodox interpretations mandatory for official positions.
  • The state’s marriage to Confucius continued into late imperial times; after the Han, periods of disunity saw fluctuating official status for Confucius and Confucianism.
  • With the Tang (618–907 CE), Confucius remained a symbol of cultural unity; Song dynasty (969–1279 CE) Zhu Xi institutionalized the Analects as part of the Four Books used in civil service examinations; memorization of the text and orthodox commentaries persisted through the early twentieth century.
  • After 1911, Confucius’ role shifted with political changes: monarchist aspirations, Nationalist regime, and eventually Communist China—where Confucius was periodically vilified but later rehabilitated as a cultural hero in various forms.
  • Today, China funds temple restoration and erects statues of Confucius as part of cultural heritage and soft power strategies; Confucius has been rebooted in “East Asian” human rights debates as a foundational figure for traditional values.

Key Interpreters of Confucius

  • Early interpreters (besides the Analects) include the two most prominentWarring States philosophers:
    • Mencius (Mengzi, 372–289 BCE): typically sees human nature as innately good; renxing (human nature) leads to ren with cultivation; li and qi are important; he often presents himself as transmitting Confucius’ ideas with additions, but his analysis diverges on the role of qi and innate goodness.
    • Xunzi (Hsün-tzu, 310–220 BCE): argues humans are originally bad but can be reformed through self-cultivation; he agrees with the importance of li for cultivating renxing; he critiques Mencius; both see Confucius as their source, but each adds his own theory.
  • Later interpreters (Tang to Ming): Neo-Confucianism, including:
    • Zhang Zai (Chang Tsai, 1020–1077 CE)
    • Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi, 1130–1200 CE)
    • Wang Yangming (1472–1529 CE)
  • Neo-Confucians emphasized cosmology and metaphysical aspects influenced by Buddhism and Daoism, diverging from the Analects’ more practical, ethical focus.
  • A common methodological caution: all sources on Confucius postdate him and may reflect later influences; use sources with a critical eye toward potential distortions or external influences.
  • Overall picture: Confucius is the fountainhead for the tradition; interpreters differ on human nature, the scope of li, and the metaphysical commitments that accompany his ethics.

References and Further Reading

  • The article provides an extensive bibliography spanning foundational translations, interpretive studies, and historical analyses. Representative examples include works by: Allan, Ames, Ames & Rosemont, Boodberg, Brooks & Taeko, Chan, Cheng, Creel, Eno, Fingarette, Hall & Ames, Lau, Lau, Legge, Nivison, Shryock, Taylor, Tu, Van Norden, Waley, among others. (The post-Analects literature emphasizes caution about sources and the evolution of Confucian thought across dynasties.)
  • Notable topics touched by the references include the transmission of Confucius’ thought, the Golden Rule (shu/what-you-don’t-desire-for-yourself), the conception of li and de, self-cultivation, and the evolution of Confucianism from Analects through Neo-Confucianism.
  • Key primary and secondary sources emphasize the need to cross-check the Analects with other texts and to recognize the influence of later philosophical schools on the interpretation of Confucius.

Summary of core terms and concepts

  • Tian: Heaven; moral order; alignment with virtue; requires human agents to actualize its will.
  • Li: ritual propriety; social norms; a mechanism to reproduce moral, aesthetic, and social order.
  • De (moral force): virtue that enables legitimate rule; aligns with Tian; manifests in leadership.
  • Xiao: filial piety; core familial virtue; linked to reverence (jing).
  • Ren (jen): benevolence; the central virtue of the junzi; expressed in relational acts toward others.
  • Yi: righteousness; actions that are morally and socially appropriate (the standard for behavior).
  • Junzi: