Comprehensive Exam Notes (His last class)
Review major themes covered throughout the semester, including key theories and their applications in contemporary contexts.
Review of Previous Material
Fort Sumter
The South's decision to seize control of federal territories, particularly Fort Sumter, was rooted in their assertion of sovereignty and states' rights, a direct challenge to federal authority that the U.S. government could not ignore. This act was seen as open rebellion.
When the North responded by sending humanitarian aid ships, the South viewed this as an act of aggression, leading to the bombardment of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, marking the commencement of the Civil War.
John Brown's Raid on Harper's Ferry
John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry was an attempt to initiate a large-scale slave insurrection by seizing weapons from a federal arsenal. Brown hoped to arm slaves and incite them to revolt against slaveholders.
The raid was quickly suppressed, and Brown was captured by federal forces under the command of Robert E. Lee. Subsequently, he was tried for treason against the state of Virginia, convicted, and hanged.
The South perceived Brown's actions as those of a terrorist, while many in the North regarded him as a hero and freedom fighter, highlighting the deep ideological divisions over slavery. Brown was motivated by his profound conviction that slavery was an intolerable injustice, surpassing any crime he might commit in opposition to it.
Dred Scott Decision of 1857
Dred Scott, an enslaved African American man, sought to gain his freedom by arguing that his residence in free states and territories entitled him to emancipation.
The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, ruled against Scott. The court declared that slaves were not citizens and thus lacked the right to sue in federal court. Furthermore, the decision asserted that the Missouri Compromise, which had restricted slavery in certain territories, was unconstitutional, thus opening all territories to the potential expansion of slavery.
Southern states interpreted Justice Taney's decision as a validation of their stance on slavery, reinforcing its status as a legal and protected institution within the United States.
Northerners and abolitionists decried the decision as unjust and a perversion of constitutional principles. They argued that it undermined the fundamental rights of individuals and threatened the nation's commitment to freedom and equality. Additionally, the ruling led abolitionists to question the moral consistency of defending slavery as a “god-given right” when judicial interpretations of its legality seemed so inconsistent.
Union Strategy: The Anaconda Plan
President Lincoln's primary objective was to preserve the Union, and he adopted the Anaconda Plan as a strategic approach to achieve this goal. The Anaconda Plan was developed by General Winfield Scott.
The Anaconda Plan involved a naval blockade of the Confederacy to cripple its economy by preventing the export of cotton and the import of supplies. If the blockade proved insufficient, the Union planned to invade and capture Richmond, Virginia, which became the Confederate capital in April 1861, aiming to demoralize the South and force reunification.
The Confederacy needed to circumvent the Union blockade to sustain its economy and defend Richmond against Union advances.
Eastern Theater of the Civil War
The Eastern Theater, particularly Virginia, was the site of intense and frequent military engagements, making it a crucial area of conflict during the Civil War.
The war in the East both began and ended in Virginia, but it also extended into Maryland and Pennsylvania, underscoring the strategic importance of this region.
The initial phase of the war (1861-late 1863) in the Eastern Theater was marked by a prolonged stalemate, with neither side gaining a decisive advantage.
The Confederacy aimed to carry the war into the North to erode Northern support for the conflict, while Lincoln sought to achieve political and military victories to bolster the Union cause.
The conflict evolved into a grim war of attrition, where both sides aimed to deplete the other's resources, manpower, and morale, leading to a protracted and devastating struggle.
Initial Union Strategy and Leadership Changes
Initially, Lincoln envisioned a swift resolution to the conflict, anticipating a three-month war that would quickly subdue the Confederacy with the capture of Richmond.
Due to the repeated failures of Union generals to secure key victories, particularly the capture of Richmond, Lincoln dismissed several commanders in search of more effective leadership.
Ervin McDowell
Irvin McDowell was appointed to lead the Army of the Potomac, the main Union Army in the East, with the mission of advancing on and capturing Richmond.
McDowell's advance was halted at the First Battle of Bull Run (also known as Manassas), where Confederate forces, reinforced by troops under the command of General Thomas Jackson, successfully defended their position. Jackson's resolute stand earned him the moniker "Stonewall."
McDowell shouldered much of the blame for the Union defeat and the disorganized retreat that followed, leading to his removal from command.
George McClellan
George B. McClellan succeeded McDowell with the same objective: to capture Richmond. McClellan was known for his meticulous planning and organizational skills.
Despite his organizational prowess, McClellan was hesitant to engage the enemy, delaying action for nine months while stationed in Washington, D.C., much to Lincoln's frustration.
Lincoln repeatedly urged McClellan to take action, promising him full support, but McClellan remained indecisive, citing the need for more preparation and supplies.
During the winter of 1861-1862, McClellan fell ill, further delaying the Union advance. Meanwhile, Confederate forces under Stonewall Jackson secured the Shenandoah Valley, a vital agricultural region known as the "breadbasket of America," depriving the Union of essential resources.
In late June 1862, McClellan finally engaged Robert E. Lee's Confederate forces in a series of battles known as the Seven Days Battles. These battles were fought near Richmond.
Although McClellan's army did not suffer a complete defeat, the battles were largely inconclusive, with some ending in draws. McClellan's cautious and often perplexing tactics frustrated many, including his own officers. Famously, McClellan would win tactical engagements, only to strategically retreat, confusing allies and foes alike.
After the Seven Days Battles, McClellan retreated to Harrison's Landing and eventually back to Washington, D.C., effectively abandoning his campaign and army.
Stalemate and Growing Casualties
By this point, the Union had failed to achieve any of its major objectives in the Eastern Theater. Similarly, the Confederacy had not met all its goals, but it successfully defended Richmond and maintained control over the Shenandoah Valley.
The battles in the Eastern Theater resulted in significant casualties on both sides, reflecting the intensity and scale of the conflict. Casualty lists grew dramatically as the war progressed, highlighting the increasingly destructive nature of the engagements.
The number of deaths by the end of the war reached approximately 650,000, underscoring the immense human cost of the Civil War.
Battle of Antietam
General Lee aimed to break the stalemate in Virginia by invading the North, hoping to weaken Northern resolve and pressure Lincoln into negotiating a peace settlement favorable to the Confederacy.
A crucial turning point occurred when a copy of Lee's battle plans was lost and subsequently discovered by a Union soldier, reportedly found wrapped around a bundle of cigars. The plans detailed Lee's troop movements and objectives.
McClellan, now reinstated to command, recognized the authenticity of the discovered plans and positioned his forces to intercept Lee's army near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg, Maryland.
The Battle of Antietam resulted in over 20,000 casualties, making it the bloodiest single-day battle in American history. Despite the heavy losses, the battle ended in a tactical stalemate.
The aftermath of Antietam saw photographs of the battlefield dead displayed in the North, bringing the stark and gruesome reality of the war home to the Northern population.
Seeking to capitalize on the symbolic victory at Antietam, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that as of January 1, 1863, all slaves in rebellious states would be freed. This transformed the war into a moral crusade against slavery.
The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1, 1863, had a profound impact on the Union war effort and international perceptions of the conflict.
Subsequent Generals and Chancellorsville
Following Antietam, Generals Ambrose Burnside and Joseph Hooker replaced McClellan in command of the Army of the Potomac, but neither managed to achieve significant breakthroughs.
At the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, Confederate forces won a major victory, but suffered a significant loss when Stonewall Jackson was accidentally shot and killed by his own men, depriving the Confederacy of one of its most capable and revered military leaders.
Jackson's death at Chancellorsville deeply affected the Confederacy, impacting both military strategy and morale.
Meade and Gettysburg
General George Meade replaced Hooker just days before the Battle of Gettysburg. Meade was tasked with halting Lee's second invasion of the North, which aimed to strike industrial cities in Pennsylvania.
The decisive Battle of Gettysburg took place from July 1-3, 1863, as Lee's Confederate forces clashed with Meade's Union troops in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
Lee's objectives included capturing key industrial centers to undermine the North's economy and shift the focus of the war away from the South, demonstrating the Confederacy's ability to carry the war into Union territory.