Chapter 4 Hardware and Software

Chapter 4 Hardware and Software

Objectives

Describe the functions of the four fundamental hardware components of every computer.

Explain the difference between multiprocessing, parallel processing, and grid computing.

Describe how each of the three primary classes of computers is used within an organization.

Identify the three or four subclasses associated with each primary class of computer.

Identify three primary features that distinguish tier 1, 2, 3, and 4 data centers.

State the three primary goals of the “green computing” program.

List the two basic kinds of software and their associated subclasses.

Describe the role of the operating system.

State three cost savings benefits associated with server virtualization.

Describe how the service-oriented architecture approach is used to build software and microservices.

Identify three advantages of off-the-shelf versus proprietary software.

State four key advantages of the software as a service model.

Give an example of how application software is used in the personal, workgroup, and enterprise sphere of influence.

Identify five tasks for which programming languages are commonly used.

Identify the three primary types of end-user license agreements.

Compare open-source software to licensed software in terms of how each is used and supported.

Why Learn About Hardware and Software?

• State-of-the-art hardware and software:

Enables enhanced network and data security.

Increases productivity.

Improves employee morale.

Lowers costs.

Enables organization competitiveness.

• Managerial expectation regarding hardware and software investments:

Define business needs.

Ask relevant questions and evaluate options.

Anatomy of a Computer

• Basic computer hardware components:

Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Memory.

Bus.

Input/Output devices.

• Instruction phases:

• Instruction Phase:

Fetch instruction.

Decode instruction.

• Execution Phase:

Execute instruction.

Store results.

Processor

• Multicore processor:

Two or more independent processing units.

Cores sequence and execute instructions.

Processor generates heat.

• Clock speed:

Series of electronic pulses.

Produced at a predetermined rate.

Governs speed at which steps are completed.

Gigahertz (GHz) measures clock speed: $1 \text{ GHz} = 1 \text{ billion cycles per second}$.

• Manufacturing processors:

• Integrated Circuit (IC) or chip:

Set of electronic circuits on one small piece of semiconductor material (normally silicon).

Can be extremely small.

• Semiconductor fabrication plant:

Called a fab or foundry.

Factory where integrated circuits are manufactured.

Use extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) process.

Extremely expensive to set up.

• Multiprocessing:

Simultaneously execute two or more instructions.

• Coprocessors:

One processor executes specific instruction types while CPU works on another processing activity.

• Parallel processing:

Simultaneously execute the same task on multiple processors.

• Massively parallel processing systems:

Link hundreds or thousands of processors.

• Parallel processing (continued):

• Grid computing:

Coordinated computers.

Owned by multiple individuals or organizations.

Solves a common problem.

Low-cost approach to parallel processing.

• Central server is key:

Divides computing task into subtasks.

Assigns work to grid computers.

Monitors processing.

Main Memory

• Main memory:

Rapidly provides working storage to the CPU.

Used for program instructions and data.

• Data storage in memory:

Eight bits together form a byte (B).

Storage capacity measured in bytes.

One byte equals one character of data.

• Computer storage units:

Byte (B) = $1$

Kilobyte (KB) = $1,000$

Megabyte (MB) = $1,000^2$

Gigabyte (GB) = $1,000^3$

Terabyte (TB) = $1,000^4$

Petabyte (PB) = $1,000^5$

Exabyte (EB) = $1,000^6$

Zettabyte (ZB) = $1,000^7$

Yottabyte (YB) = $1,000^8$

RAM and Cache

• Random Access Memory (RAM):

Memory where instructions or data can be temporarily stored.

Volatile storage.

Mounted directly on main circuit board.

• Many varieties:

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM).

Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (DDR SDRAM).

• Cache memory:

High-speed memory.

Processor can access more rapidly than main memory.

• Read-Only Memory (ROM):

Nonvolatile memory providing permanent storage for data and instructions that do not change.

• ROM varieties:

• Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):

Holds data and instructions that can never be changed.

• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM):

User-modifiable read-only memory.

Can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher-than-normal electrical voltage.

Secondary Storage

• Secondary Storage:

Stores large amounts of data, instructions, and information.

More permanent than main memory.

Less expensive than primary memory.

Not directly accessible by the CPU.

• Secondary storage devices:

Magnetic tape.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD).

Redundant Array of Independent/Inexpensive Disks (RAID).

Virtual tape.

• Solid-state secondary storage devices:

Solid-State Drive (SSD).

Stores data in memory chips.

Uses less power and provides faster data access.

No moving parts.

Input/Output Devices

Allows interaction with a computer system.

• Common personal computer input devices:

Keyboard and computer mouse.

• Optical data readers:

Special scanning device to scan documents.

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR).

Optical Character Recognition (OCR).

• Bar-code scanners:

Laser scanner reads a bar-coded label.

May be stationary or handheld.

• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) devices:

Microchip with an antenna broadcasts its unique identifier and location to receivers.

Transmits data to a tag.

Tag read by an RFID reader and processed.

• Pen input devices:

Pen touches screen and activates commands.

• Touch screens:

Activate programs or trigger other types of actions.

Output Devices

• Display screens:

• Computer graphics card:

Translates binary data from CPU into an image.

• Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):

Processing chip that renders images on the screen.

• Printers and plotters:

Laser printers and inkjet printers.

Plotters used for general design work.

• 3D printers:

Create objects using strands of a plastic filament or synthetic powder.

Computer System Classes

• Computer classifications:

Special-purpose: used for limited applications.

General-purpose: used for a variety of applications.

• Three classes of general-purpose computers:

Portable computers: used by one user at a time.

Nonportable computers: used by one person at a time.

Systems used by multiple concurrent users.

Portable Computers

• Portable computers:

Small enough to carry easily.

• Four categories:

Smartphones.

Laptops.

Notebooks.

Tablets.

• Smartphones:

Employ a combination chipset called a “system on a chip,” which includes processor cores, RAM and ROM memory, interface controllers, and voltage regulators.

Nonportable, Single-User Computers

• Thin clients:

Low-cost, centrally managed computers.

No internal or external attached drives for data storage.

• Desktop computers:

Single-user computer systems.

Highly versatile.

Provide sufficient computing power, memory, and storage for most business computing tasks.

• Nettop computer:

Very small, inexpensive desktop computer.

Used for Internet access, email, accessing Web-based applications, document processing, and audio/video playback.

Require one-tenth the amount of power.

• Workstations:

More powerful than personal computers.

Small enough to fit on a desktop.

Support engineering and technical users.

Servers, Mainframes, and Supercomputers

• Server:

Computer employed by many users to perform a specific task.

• Several types:

Web server, enterprise server, file server.

• Offers great scalability:

The ability to increase the processing capability of a computer system so that it can handle more users, more data, or more transactions in a given period.

• Mainframe computer:

Large, powerful computer.

Shared by dozens or hundreds of concurrent users connected to the machine over a network.

• Backward compatibility:

Key feature allowing current mainframes to run software created decades ago.

• Supercomputers:

Special-purpose machines.

Designed for applications requiring extensive and rapid computational capabilities.

• Five most powerful operational supercomputers (June 2018):

Summit: Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN, United States, 122.3 Petaflops.

Sunway TaihuLight: National Supercomputing Center, Wuxi, China, 93 Petaflops.

Sierra: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States, 71.6 Petaflops.

Tianhe-2A: National Supercomputing Center, Guangzho, China, 33.9 Petaflops.

AI Bridging Cloud Infrastructure (ABCI): National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) University at Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan, 19.9 Petaflops.

Quantum Computers

Based on qubits.

• Follow quantum physics principles:

Superposition and entanglement.

Five-qubit quantum computers exist.

Goal: 50-qubit computer.

Quantum computer might break current encryption technology.

Server Farms

• Server farm:

Large number of servers in the same room.

Access to machine can be controlled.

• Blade server:

Houses many individual computer motherboards.

• Motherboard’s components:

One or more processors.

Computer memory.

Computer storage.

Computer network connections.

Data Center

• Data center:

Climate-and-access-controlled building or a set of buildings.

Houses the computer hardware that delivers an organization’s data and information services.

• The Uptime Institute:

Defined four tiers of data center classification.

• Classification of data centers by tiers:

• Tier 1:

Expected annual downtime: 28.8 hours.

Fault Tolerance: No redundancy.

Power outage protection: None.

• Tier 2:

Expected annual downtime: 22 hours.

Fault Tolerance: Partial.

Power outage protection: A few hours.

• Tier 3:

Expected annual downtime: 1.6 hours.

Fault Tolerance: N + 1.

Power outage protection: 72 hours.

• Tier 4:

Expected annual downtime: 26.3 minutes.

Fault Tolerance: 2N + 1.

Power outage protection: 96 hours.

Green Computing

• Green computing:

Efficient and environmentally responsible design, manufacture, operation, and disposal of IT-related products.

Includes all types of computing devices.

• Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT):

Ranking system based on 51 environmental criteria.

• Three tiers of environmental performance:

Bronze, Silver, and Gold.

• EPEAT product tiers for computers:

• Bronze:

All 23 required criteria must be met.

None optional criteria must be met.

• Silver:

All 23 required criteria must be met.

At least 50% optional criteria must be met.

• Gold:

All 23 required criteria must be met.

At least 75% optional criteria must be met.

System Software

• System software:

Includes operating systems, utilities, and middleware.

Coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and other programs throughout the computer system.

• Application software:

Consists of programs that help users solve computing problems.

Operating Systems

• Operating System (OS):

Set of programs controlling a computer’s hardware.

Interface with application software.

• Kernel:

Heart of the OS controlling critical processes.

Ties OS components together.

Regulates other programs.

Various combinations of OSs, computers, and users exist.

• Functions performed:

Control common computer hardware functions.

Provide a user interface.

Manage input/output operations.

Provide a degree of hardware independence.

Manage memory.

Manage processing tasks.

Provide networking capabilities.

Control access to system resources.

Manage files.

• Task management:

• Five approaches to increase processing:

Multiuser.

Multiprocessing.

Multitasking.

Multithreading.

Real-time.

Not all operating systems employ all approaches.

• Operating systems by sphere of influence:

• Personal:

Microsoft Windows.

Mac OS X, iOS.

Linux.

Google Android, Chrome OS.

HP webOS.

• Workgroup:

Microsoft Windows Server.

Mac OS X Server.

Linux.

UNIX.

• Enterprise:

Microsoft Windows Server.

Linux.

UNIX.

IBM i and z/OS.

HP-UX.

• Running multiple operating systems with server virtualization:

• Server virtualization:

Logically dividing a single physical server’s resources to create multiple logical servers.

Virtual machine acts as its own dedicated machine.

• Hypervisor:

Virtual server program that controls the host processor and resources, allocates the necessary resources to each virtual machine, and ensures that they do not disrupt each other.

• Enterprise operating systems:

Handle very heavy workloads.

Serving thousands of concurrent users and running an organization’s critical applications.

• Embedded systems:

Computer system implanted in and dedicated to the control of another device.

• Utility programs:

Perform a variety of tasks typically related to system maintenance or problem correction.

• Middleware:

Provides messaging services.

Applications communicate and exchange data.

Lies between OS and applications running on it.

• Service-oriented architecture (SOA):

Discrete modules provide specific functions to applications.

• Application Programming Interfaces (API):

Set of programming instructions and standards.

Microservices can interact via APIs.

Application Software

• Primary function:

Apply the power of a computer system.

Enable people, workgroups, and entire enterprises to solve problems and perform specific tasks.

Many categories of applications exist.

Many options exist, too.

Overview of Application Software

• Proprietary software:

One-of-a-kind software.

Designed for a specific application and for an individual company, organization, or person that uses it.

Can give a company a competitive advantage.

• Off-the-shelf software:

Produced by software vendors to address needs that are common across businesses, organizations, or individuals.

Software as a Service (SaaS)

• Software as a Service (SaaS):

Third-party provider hosts applications.

Become available to subscribers over the Internet.

• Advantages:

Available from any computer or any device.

SaaS provider handles upgrades and patches.

Lower costs for software licensing.

SaaS provider manages service levels and availability.

Software Suites and Integrated Software Packages

• Major components of leading software suites:

• Microsoft Office:

Word: Word.

Spreadsheet: Excel.

Presentation Graphics: PowerPoint.

Database: Access.

• Corel WordPerfect Office:

Word processing: WordPerfect Writer.

Spreadsheet: Quattro Pro.

Presentation graphics: Presentations.

Database: Paradox.

• Apache OpenOffice:

Word processing: Calc.

Spreadsheet: Calc.

Presentation graphics: Impress and Draw.

Database: Base.

• Apple iWork:

Word processing: Pages.

Spreadsheet: Numbers.

Presentation graphics: Keynote.

• G Suite (Google Apps):

Word processing: Docs.

Spreadsheet: Sheets.

Presentation graphics: Slides.

Other Personal Application Software

• Software for personal and business use:

Tax-preparation programs.

Software for creating Web sites, composing music, and editing photos and videos.

Educational and reference software.

Entertainment software.

Programs designed to promote physical activity.

Computer-Assisted Design (CAD) software.

Mobile Application Software

• Categories of mobile applications:

Books and reference: Access e-books, subscribe to journals, or look up information on the Merriam-Webster or Wikipedia Web sites.

Business and finance: Track expenses, trade stocks, and access corporate information systems.

Entertainment: Access all forms of entertainment, including movies, television programs, music videos, and information about local night life.

Games: Play a variety of games, from 2D games such as Pacman and Tetris to 3D games such as Need for Speed, Call of Duty, and Minecraft.

Health and fitness: Track workout and fitness progress, calculate calories, and even monitor your speed and progress from your wirelessly connected Nike shoes.

Lifestyle: Find good restaurants, make a dinner reservation, select wine for a meal, and more.

Music: Find, listen to, and create music.

News and weather: Access major news and weather providers, including Reuters, AP, the New York Times, and the Weather Channel.

Photography: Organize, edit, view, and share photos taken on your phone’s camera.

Productivity and utilities: Create grocery lists, practice PowerPoint presentations, work on spreadsheets, synchronize with PC files, and more.

Social networking: Connect with others via major social networks, including Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

Sports: Keep up with your favorite team or track your own golf scores.

Travel and navigation: Use the GPS in your smartphone to get turn-by-turn directions, find interesting places to visit, access travel itineraries, and more.

Workgroup Application Software

• Workgroup application software:

Designed to support teamwork.

Team member’s location does not matter.

• Web-based software.

Ideal for group use.

• Personal application software.

Can extend into the workgroup application arena.

Enterprise Application Software

• Enterprise application:

Software for organization-wide business needs.

Shares data with other enterprise applications used within the organization.

• Major considerations when selecting enterprise software:

Total cost.

Ease of installation.

Level of training and support required.

Integration with other enterprise applications.

Programming Languages

• Programming languages:

Sets of keywords, commands, symbols, and rules for constructing statements.

• Compiler:

Translates programmer’s source code into the machine-language instructions.

• Integrated development environment:

Combines the tools required for software engineering into one package.

Software Licenses

• End User License Agreement (EULA):

Legal agreement between the software manufacturer and the user of the software.

Stipulates the terms of usage.

• Three primary types of end user licenses:

Single-user license.

Individual/multiuser licenses.

Network/multiuser licenses.

Open-Source Software

• Open-source software:

Typically free and distributed with source code.

Available for study, change, and improvement.

GNU General Public License (GPL) protects open-source software.

• Disadvantages:

May have hidden costs.

Software support issues.

• Examples of open-source software:

Apache HTTP Server: Web server.

Apache OpenOffice: Application software.

Drupal: Web publishing.

Firefox: Web browser.

Gimp: Photo editing.

Grisbi: Personal accounting.

Linux: Operating system.

MySQL: Database software.

ProjectLibre Open Project: Project management.

Software Upgrades

• Software upgrades:

Source of increased revenue for software manufacturers.

Vary widely in the benefits they provide.

• Software upgrade decision:

Challenge for corporations.

• Software upgrade strategy:

Important for many businesses.

Summary

• Computer hardware industry is rapidly changing and highly competitive.

Select hardware to meet evolving needs.

Consider green computing initiatives.

• Software helps achieve goals.

Off-the-shelf application meets common business needs.

Proprietary application software meets unique business needs.