Notes on the Hayes Era and Gilded Age Politics
Hayes Presidency and the End of Reconstruction
Context: Post-Cederal Reconstruction realities after the Compromise of 1877
Hayes becomes president, but the tragedy is that civil rights for Southern African Americans were largely sacrificed. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 faltered as a result.
African American politicians in the South were voted out; voter intimidation increased; there were no Union troops to protect people; it would be a long time before conditions improved.
Hayes’s presidency marks the beginning of a divided Republican Party and a retreat from Reconstruction-era reforms.
Rutherford B. Hayes: persona and governance
Hayes was often called “Rutherford” or “Old Eighty-Seven” because of the cloud surrounding the 1876 election; he benefited from the outcome but did not engineer the corrupt deal himself.
He and his wife, Lucy, were seen as straight-laced and “by the book.” Lucy reportedly refused alcohol in the White House, earning the nickname Lemonade Lucy; water flowed like champagne in the White House, according to anecdotes.
Hayes appointed a well-qualified, honest cabinet; his administration was perceived as relatively clean, but the Republican Party itself began to fracture.
Republican party fragmentation under Hayes
The party split into four wings, centered on questions of how much corruption to tolerate in politics:
The Stalwarts (led by Roscoe Conkling of New York): hardcore Republicans who tolerated corruption; used aggressive tactics to maintain control. A famous quip in the transcript compares corruption to “peanut butter and jelly.”
The Half-Breeds (led by James G. Blaine, from Maine): tolerated some corruption but favored reform.
The Mugwumps (led by Carl Schurz): liberal Republicans who opposed corruption.
The Stalwarts and Half-Breeds controlled the party in distinct ways:
Waving the Bloody Shirt: used Civil War-era grievances to rally voters and distract from current issues by reminding voters of Democrats’ alleged treacheries.
Anglophobia: a stance that Britain’s global influence was a threat; some Republicans claimed they could protect the nation by signaling strength against foreign power, notably Britain.
Voting cattle: tactics to manipulate votes by transporting people to polls under different names, voting under one name, and then again under another name after changing appearance (e.g., “a barber shop, haircut, beard removed”).
The election of 1880 and the Garfield era
Democratic nominee: Winfield Scott Hancock (a former Union general with strong credentials).
Republican nominee: James A. Garfield (a Half-Breed figure).
Result: Hancock came close but Garfield won. Garfield’s presidency began in 1881.
Garfield’s assassination (1881):
Perpetrator: Charles J. Guiteau, a stalwart Republican who sought a government job and was denied; he shot Garfield in a DC train station after weeks of stalking.
Medical aftermath: Garfield survived the initial bullet wound, but doctors—without gloves—probed the wound, leading to infection.
The attempted bullet extraction was aided by an early metal-detection device from Alexander Graham Bell; a demonstration at the Smithsonian inspired by Bell’s device is noted, but the machine reportedly went berserk because Garfield lay on metal bed springs, which confused the metal detector. Garfield ultimately died of infection.
Guiteau was executed for the murder.
Chester A. Arthur becomes president after Garfield’s death; noted for a sleazy reputation.
He is the only president for whom no presidential papers exist because he ordered their destruction at death; thus, a large amount of his potential archival material is missing.
Arthur conducted a White House yard sale, selling off items for personal gain.
Key reform and regulatory milestones during Arthur’s administration
Pendleton Act (Civil Service Reform Act): created the Civil Service Commission and established merit-based examinations for federal employment, reducing the patronage system.
Practical impact: by modern times, over 90% of federal jobs are filled through Civil Service examinations and qualifications.
Immigration and labor: thousands of Chinese immigrants played a crucial role in building the Transcontinental Railroad.
Numbers and status: around 10,000 Chinese immigrants were employed to lay track and blast tunnels; they were not citizens and lacked civil rights, though they were taxed and could not vote.
The election of 1884: Blaine vs Cleveland
Republican nominee: James G. Blaine (from Maine), leader of the Half-Breed wing; Democrat nominee: Grover Cleveland (Governor of New York).
It was a famously dirty campaign.
Blaine’s private life appeared clean, but his public life had scandals; he wrote letters to cronies with lines like “burn this letter” at the bottom; hecklers would shout “burn this letter” at Blaine events.
Cleveland’s candidacy faced dramatic personal controversy uncovered during the campaign:
He was a bachelor who paid child support to an orphaned child and maintained a girlfriend, Maria Halpin.
When Halpin claimed pregnancy, Cleveland acknowledged the paternity, sent Halpin to an asylum, and placed the child in an orphanage; he paid $5 per week in child support.
When newspapers prepared to publish details, Cleveland’s advisers asked what to say; Cleveland reportedly urged honesty: “Tell the truth.”
Blaine’s downfall came from multiple sources:
Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion: a Protestant minister at a New York banquet toasted the Democrats as the party of “rum, Romanism, and rebellion,” prompting Blaine to toast back without fully understanding the implications.
The Irish vote: Irish voters, largely Catholic, felt insulted by the minister’s caricature and refused to support Blaine.
Delmonico dinner: a fundraising dinner hosted for Blaine by Jay Gould; Gould’s insider-trading scandals sullied Blaine’s image, and voters linked Blaine to Gould’s corrupt influence.
Cleveland’s victory: Cleveland won the 1884 election, did not remain a bachelor for long (he married his law partner’s daughter at age 49; his wife was 21).
Baby Ruth candy bar: the popular candy bar is said to be named after Cleveland’s daughter Ruth, not the baseball player Babe Ruth, though the story is often repeated.
Cleveland’s presidency (brief assessment): historians sometimes rank him as the best president between Lincoln’s death and Theodore Roosevelt due to his attempts to move beyond Civil War resentments and to promote reconciliation, though his administration carried mixed judgments.
Major policy moves during Cleveland’s first term:
Appointed former Confederate Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar II to the cabinet as Secretary of the Interior, signaling reconciliation with the former Confederacy.
Encouraged the return of Confederate battle flags to their states (a symbolic move to promote national healing).
Vetoed pensions for Union soldiers (a controversial stance given that Cleveland never served in the Civil War).
Interstate Commerce and other reforms
Interstate Commerce Commission established in 1887 to regulate railroads and ensure fair pricing and practices; one of the earliest large-scale federal regulatory bodies.
The 1888 election and Harrison’s presidency
1888 election context: Benjamin Harrison (Republican) nominated; Grover Cleveland (Democrat) renominated; Harrison won the election notwithstanding Cleveland’s strong popularity.
Fiscal note from Harrison era:
It is claimed that there was no national debt at the start of Harrison’s term, followed by a substantial renewal of debt due to policy choices.
The Dependent Pension Act under Harrison provided pensions for Union soldiers; the government disbursed approximately 8 imes 10^9 dollars in pensions to those who wore Union uniforms.
The national debt escalated dramatically during this period, with figures cited as reaching about 2.1 imes 10^{13} dollars (described in the talk as “twenty-one trillion dollars,” though modern records show a more complex and nuanced debt trajectory in the late 19th century).
Social dynamics around pensions: aging Civil War veterans were a political demographic; anecdotes mention fathers arranging marriages for their daughters to ensure access to pension funds after the old veteran’s death.
Plessy v. Ferguson and the era’s legal framework
Plessy v. Ferguson established the “separate but equal” doctrine, allowing segregation as long as facilities were equal in quality.
In practice, segregated facilities were not equal; this ruling underpinned Jim Crow laws and enforced racial segregation for decades.
Synthesis and signficance
The period covered highlights the transition from Reconstruction to the Gilded Age, with persistent racial oppression, political corruption, reform movements (civil service reform, regulatory commissions), and the birth of modern party politics with factional divides.
The era also features pivotal incidents that shaped U.S. political culture: assassination of a president, landmark civil service reforms, immigration policy shifts, and the entrenchment of legalized segregation.
Quick reference: key dates and acts
Compromise of 1877 and end of Reconstruction
Civil Rights Act of 1875 (undermined)
Pendleton Act establishing the Civil Service Commission: ext{date: 1883-1884 (Act passed)}
Chinese Exclusion Act: 1882
Interstate Commerce Commission established: 1887
Dependent Pension Act (pensions for Union soldiers): era around the Harrison presidency
Plessy v. Ferguson: legal doctrine of “separate but equal”
Explanatory notes on some terms
Waving the Bloody Shirt: a political tactic used to remind voters of Civil War-era loyalties and grievances to rally against opponents.
Anglophobia: fear or distrust of Britain’s power and influence; used as a political edge in some factions.
Voting cattle: propaganda and fraud tactic to manipulate electoral participation by loading the polls with repeated votes under different names.
Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion: charge used in 1884 to characterize Democrats as alcohol-focused, Catholic, and Confederate-aligned; the Delmonico dinner referenced as a fundraising event connected to Blaine’s campaign and Jay Gould’s influence.