Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Coursebook - eBook Notes

Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry: Coursebook - eBook Notes

Page 1-4

The content is the cover and introductory pages of the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Coursebook.
It highlights the endorsement for full syllabus coverage by Cambridge Assessment International Education.
The book is authored by Richard Harwood, Chris Millington, and Ian Lodge.
It includes publication information, copyright details, and notices related to reproduction rights.
The pages also contain the 'Dedicated Teacher Awards' information, celebrating teachers' contributions.

Page 5: Contents

Chapter 1: States of Matter - Introduces the three states of matter and kinetic particle theory.
Chapter 2: Atomic Structure - Covers atoms, elements, isotopes, and electronic configuration.
Chapter 3: Chemical Bonding - Discusses non-metallic substances, covalent bonding, ions, and giant structures.
Chapter 4: Chemical Formulae and Equations - Explains chemical names, formulas, and relative masses.
Chapter 5: Chemical Calculations - Focuses on the mole and Avogadro's constant, and solution chemistry.
Chapter 6: Electrochemistry - Covers types of electrical conductivity and electrolysis.
Chapter 7: Chemical Energetics - Deals with physical and chemical changes and exothermic/endothermic reactions.
Chapter 8: Rates of Reactions - Explores factors affecting reaction rates and collision theory.
Chapter 9: Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium - Discusses reversible reactions, Haber process, Contact process, and fertilizers.
Chapter 10: Redox Reactions - Covers combustion, oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions.
Chapter 11: Acids and Bases - Explains the nature of acids and bases and their characteristic reactions.
Chapter 12: Preparation of Salts - Details the preparation and importance of salts.

Page 6: Contents (Continued)

Chapter 13: The Periodic Table - Classifies elements and discusses trends in groups and across a period.
Chapter 14: Metallic Elements and Alloys - Properties and uses of metals, and alloys.
Chapter 15: Reactivity of Metals - Metal reactivity series and displacement reactions.
Chapter 16: Extraction and Corrosion of Metals - Metal extraction methods and corrosion prevention.
Chapter 17: Chemistry of Our Environment - Focuses on air and water quality, climate change, and pollution.
Chapter 18: Introduction to Organic Chemistry - Names, formulas, structural formulas, homologous series, and isomerism of organic compounds.
Chapter 19: Reactions of Organic Compounds - Characteristic reactions of homologous series, chemistry of ethanol, carboxylic acids, and esters.
Chapter 20: Petrochemicals and Polymers - Petroleum products and polymers.
Chapter 21: Experimental Design and Separation Techniques - Discusses experimental design, separation, and chromatography.
Chapter 22: Chemical Analysis - Tests to identify cations, anions, and gases, and quantitative analysis.
Includes a Glossary, Appendix (Periodic Table), and Index.

Page 7: How to use this series

The coursebook is designed to provide full coverage of the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry syllabus.
Supplement content is indicated with a large arrow and a darker background.
The teacher's resource offers detailed guidance for all topics, including common misconceptions and lesson ideas.
Differentiation is emphasized, with advice for identifying different learner needs.
The teacher's resource contains support for preparing and carrying out all the investigations in the practical workbook.
Answers for all components are accessible to teachers for free on the Cambridge GO platform.

Page 8: How to use this series (Continued)

The skills-focused workbook helps learners develop necessary skills through 'focus', 'practice', and 'challenge' exercises.
The practical workbook provides additional opportunities for hands-on practical work and investigative skills development.
The maths skills workbook focuses on maths skills needed to succeed in chemistry.
The English language skills workbook helps students consolidate understanding and embed practice in aspects of language central to the subject.

Page 9: How to use this book

Learning Intentions: Set the scene for each chapter and indicate important concepts.
Getting Started: Contains questions and activities on subject knowledge needed before starting the chapter.
Science in Context: Presents real-world examples and applications, with discussion questions.
Experimental Skills: Focuses on developing practical skills, including equipment lists and safety issues.
Questions: Check understanding of the topic just read.
Activity: Check and develop understanding throughout the text in a more active way.
Key Words: Highlighted in the text with definitions in boxes.
Command Words: Highlighted in exam-style questions with definitions in the margin.

Page 10: How to use this book (Continued)

Worked Example: Provides step-by-step guidance for calculations.
Reflection: Asks you to think about your approach to work and how to improve.
Summary: Key points at the end of each chapter.
Self/Peer Assessment: Opportunities to assess own work or classmates' work.
Extension Content: Boxes indicate information not part of the syllabus.
Project: Apply learning to group activities extending beyond the syllabus.
Exam-Style Questions: Practice exam questions requiring use of knowledge for previous chapters.
Self-Evaluation Checklist: Relate to Learning Intentions, rating confidence ('Needs more work', 'Almost there', 'Confident to move on').

Page 11: Introduction

Chemistry is a laboratory science based on experimental observation.
It extends beyond the laboratory, impacting our understanding of the planet, environment, resources, and health.
This coursebook is the fifth edition for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry (0620/0971) and covers the syllabus for examinations from 2023 onwards.
Chapters are arranged in the same sequence as the topics in the syllabus. Questions will assess understanding of facts and concepts.
Topics are interconnected, requiring appreciation of the links between different areas of the syllabus.
Reflection boxes and self-evaluation checklists encourage thinking about how you learn and understanding of each topic.
Practical skills are developed through experiments and practical work.
Note to teachers: You and your school are responsible for safety matters.

Page 12: Chapter 1 - States of Matter

Chapter Overview: Matter exists in solid, liquid, or gas states; substances can change state depending on physical conditions.
Matter is made of small particles (atoms or molecules); temperature changes affect motion of particles and therefore state changes.
The structure of physical states is described by arrangement and movement of particles.
Temperature and pressure affect the volume of a gas.
Diffusion explained in terms of particle movement.
The kinetic particle theory explains how changes of state happen.
Effects of temperature and pressure on gas volume are to be understood.
Molecular mass of gas particles affects the rate of diffusion (supplement content).

Page 13: Chapter 1 - Getting Started / Science in Context

Briefly describes content of the chapter.
Getting started requires observations in terms of state change and movement of molecules to understand chapter content.
Saturn's rings: vast amounts of particles that include water, ammonia, and methane ice/gas. Hydrogen is the most abundant element on Saturn.
Liquid gases in the planet interior show metallic properties because of extreme pressure.

Page 14: 1.1 States of Matter

Matter occupies space (volume) and has mass.
Chemistry is the study of matter's behavior and transformation.
Substances can exist as solid, liquid, or gas, the state depending on conditions of temperature and/or pressure.
Characteristics of each state: fixed volume (solid, liquid only), density, definite shape (solid only), fluidity (liquids and gases are fluids).
Gases are easily compressed, while liquids and solids are not. Expansion and contraction occur with temperature changes in all states.

Page 15: 1.1 States of Matter (Changes in State)

Changes of state (sublimation, melting, evaporation, freezing, condensation) are driven by temperature changes.
Melting: solid becomes liquid at the melting point; freezing is the reverse.
Sublimation: solid changes directly to gas (e.g., solid carbon dioxide).
Evaporation: liquid to gas at the surface. Boiling: gas forms within the liquid at boiling point.
Volatile liquids evaporate easily.
Condensation: gas to liquid, often brought about by cooling or increasing pressure. Heat is given out during condensation.

Page 16: 1.1 States of Matter (Evaporation, Boiling and Condensation)

Eventually, liquid becomes hot as gas forms within the liquid; bubbles appears as it boils at boiling point (BP) for pure liquid.
Volatile liquids evaporates faster.
Condensation turns gases into liquid, possible at normal temperatures through pressure without boiling.
Steam is colourless, steam cloud is made up by droplets of liquid when condenses.

Page 17: 1.1 States of Matter (Evaporation, Boiling and Condensation and Pure Substances)

For water, bubbles are formed when there is high energy and enough gas to equal atmospheric pressure
The BP of a liquid changes when outside pressure changes (usually stated with pressure or standard)
Pure substances: melts and boils as definite temperatures: oxygen, ethanol, water, sulfur, common salt (sodium chloride), copper and carbon dioxides

Page 18: 1.1 States of Matter (Effect of Impurities)

A pure substance melts and boils at definite temperatures.
Melting and boiling points are used to test a substance's purity and to check its identity.
An impure substance melts/boils over a range of temperatures.
Seawater freezes below 0°C and boils above 100°C.
Questions provided for review.

Page 19: 1.1 States of Matter (Heating and Cooling Curves)

Apparatus for measuring the melting point of a solid is described.
The temperature remains constant during melting and boiling.
Cooling curves can be produced to show the freezing point of a liquid, and the temperature remains constant.
Heat energy is needed to change a solid into a liquid or liquid into a gas. Heat energy is given out during the reverse processes.

Page 20: Experimental Skills 1.1 & 1.2

Instructions given for sketching a cooling curve for 2 substances, A and B. The experiment investigates the energy change of when a liquid cools below its freezing point.
Safety instructions and method explained.
Self-assessment include awarding yourself for axes, scales, labels, points, lines and anomalous reading

Page 21: Experimental Skills 1.1 (Continued) & Questions

The different ranges of score reflect the graph.
Energy is needed to make attractive forces for energy changes in different states, Sketch of cooling curve from 80 to -20C with different temperature regions of the graph.
A liquid is heated at the stages of a coding-curve experimental (e.g. A, B and C).

Page 22: 1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter (Existence of Atoms and Molecules)

Our modern understanding is based on the idea that all matter is divided into very small particles known as atoms
The key ideas in our understanding are that:
- each element is compose of its own type of atom
- atoms of different elements can combine to make the molecules of a component.

Page 23: 1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory (Main Points and Figure 1.15)

The kinetic particle theory of matter describes the three different states, and in terms of the movement of particles where:
- all matter is made up of very small particles
- different substances contain different types of particles, such as atoms, molecules, or ions
- pressure of the gas is produced by the atoms Molecules of the gas hitting the walls of the container.

Page 24: 1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory (Cooling Curves)

As particles come closer together, new forces of interaction take place which means that energy is given out during these changes.
Therefore, the temperature remains unchanged until the liquid or solid is totally formed, these are exothermic changes.
Carrying out the experiment in Opposite Direction from the solid side, gives a heating curve.
At these point energy has to be put in to overcome the faces between the particles, The energy put them breaks these interaction and the particles are able to move more freely and faster.
Intermolecular forces are the weak attractive forces that act between molecules.

Page 25: 1.3 Mixtures of Substances and Diffusion

The chemical world is very complex because of pure substances and ways in which they can mix with each other.
Each mixture has two parts: solid, liquid or gas.
Technically, solution is the type of mixture consisting on two or more substances.
Solid salt dissolves in liquid water to produce a liquid mixture: the salt (a solid solute) dissolves water (a liquid solvent) to produce a salt water solution.
In other type of mixture the states remain separate: suspensions is and example of this mixture where are find a fine particles of soil in liquid such as soil, and reaction.

Page 26: 1.3 Mixtures (Solutions)

Solutions in use consist water and many types of salt.
Dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide are important for life in the oceans.
Most other solvents are organic liquids, such as ethanol, propane and trichloroethane.
If a substance dissolves in a solvent, it is soluble, if it doesn´t its insoluble.
Miscible means that two liquids make a solution and are similar mixtures of metals like alloys.
A saturated solution contains as much dissolved solute as possible, while the concentration (how much solute is dissolved in a solvent). Solutions can be dilute with a high proportion of solvent or concentrated with a high proportion of solute.

Page 27: Mixtures (Diffusion)

The main ideas for diffusion are:
- particles move from a region of higher concentration towards a region of lower concentration
- eventually, the particles are evenly spread. Their Concentration is the same throughout
- the rate of diffusion of liquids is much slower than in gases
- diffusion does not take place in solids and the diffusion of gases where vapour is diffuses to fill the space available.

Page28: 1.3 Mixtures (Investigating Diffusion)

This experiment helps to demonstrate diffusion in a liquid shown by the formation of insoluble precipitation of ions.
Petri dish, white tile, tweezers, silver nitrate , potassium iodide , distilled water, test tubes, dropping pipettes, silver nitrate and potassium iodide solutions are needed.
wear safety protection, be careful when handling chemical, and never wash hands after.

Page 29: 1.3 Mixtures (Diffusion), 2. Introduction

Investigating crystals to begin diffusion shows that crystals will dissolve in the water and new compounds are formed.
The factors control where the solid is formed in the Petri dish.
NotAll gases diffuse at the same rate because it’s depended on mass size.
Heavier gas particles move more slowly, larger molecules diffuse more slowly, and the rate of diffusion related to the mass of particles.
Chapter 2's introduced atoms, and used image techniques of technology company IBM.

Page 30: Chapter 2 - 2.1 Atoms and Elements

Every substance around us is made up of atoms. They are the incredibly small particles from which all the material world is built.
A substance made up of just one type of atom is called an element. Elements cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical reactions.
There are now 118 known elements, but most of the known mass of the universe consists of just two elements, hydrogen (92%) and helium (7%), with all the other elements contributing only 1% to the total
There are 94 elements found naturally on Earth but just eight account for more than 98% of the mass of the Earth’s crust.
Two elements, silicon and oxygen, which are bound together in silicate rocks, make up almost three-quarters of the crust.
Different concentrations of elements form the compounds that are found in living things, for example the human-body where Oxygen forms 65%, carbon; 18%, etc.

Page 31: 2.1 Atoms and elements (structure of the atom)

John Dalton proposed an atomic theory in 1907 that atom were basic building blocks.
Since Dalton´s theory, it's has shown that the atomics formed made up of several subatomic particles.
The elections was discovered in 1897, followed soon after by the protons.
Crucial experiments show that an atom is mostly occupied by the negatively charged electrons, surrounding a very small positively charged nucleus.
The neutrons are universal since the atoms consist of it-protons neutrons and elections. The atoms remains the smallest particle that shows the chemical characteristics.
Sub-topic particle are an useful description.

Page 32: Atomic Structure, 2.1 Elements (Characteristics of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons)

Protons and neutrons are located in the small central nucleus, and electrons are present in the space surrounding the nucleus.
Electrons are held within the atom by an electrostatic force of attraction between them and the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus.
Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, and are assigned a relative mass of 1.
Electrons have a negligible mass (1/1840 or 0.00054 of a proton's mass).
Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges (+1 and -1), while neutrons are electrically neutral (no charge).
Atomsare electrically neutral, with an equal number of protons and electrons.
The simplest atom is hydrogen: it has one proton and one electron.

Page 33: 2.1 Atomic and Elements (Proton and Mass Number)

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines which element it is (the proton/atomic number, Z).
Protons and neutrons are known as nucleons, and their total number is the mass number (or nucleon number) of an atom (symbol A).
Method for Representing the atom of any elements with using symbol X, to combine its mass and proton number.
The relationships are number of electrons which equals atomics/proton number, and number of neutrons equals mass number minus atomic number = Z

Page 34: 2.2 Isotopes (Measuring the Mass of Atoms)

Because of there being isotopes, carbon-12 is used to measure all atomical mass as one atom of carbon-12 is given the mass of it precisely for 12 unit
Table 2.3 gives several values of that scale of relative atomical measurement to show that atoms are 12 times are heavy and calcium atoms are 40 atoms are heavy.

Page 35, 2.2: Isotopes

Isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes are referred to using their mass number, e.g., carbon-12, carbon-13.
Some isotopes are radioactive because their nuclei are unstable (radioisotopes).
Figure 2.6 illustrates isotopes of hydrogen (H, ²H, ³H).
Table 2.4 shows elements that exist as mixtures of isotopes.

Page 36: 2.2 Isotopes

Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons.
However, they differ in some physical properties due to mass differences (e.g., density, rate of diffusion).
Radioisotopes are unstable and emit radiation.
Relative atomic mass (A.) is the average mass of an element's naturally occurring isotopes.

Page 37. Activity, Example. 2.3 Electronic config

*Worked Example to calculate relative atomic mass
*Activity: how you visualize particles such as atoms molecules. Are there any experiments which you gave a clues to the existing sub microscopic particles.

Page 38: 2.3 Electronic conf & Periodic Table

Electrons are around the central nucleus of the atom called electron shells.
Shells fill starting with lowest energy and the first shall can hold only Two electrons.
And after second shells can hold only eight electrons. Giving a stable NOBEL guess electron arrangement.
Electronic conference that´s important about element into the Periodic Table.
Borne developed a theory to explain how the electrons are arranged in atoms. These Siri helps to explain how the colours in the play most are reduced.

Page 39: 2.3. Electronic conf and the Periodic table continued

For any atom, the conbination of arrangement with the number of protons and neutrons makes it possible to to put or draw it, including Carbon-12 atom
Electron Arrangement/electronic configuration can be also written in terms of numbers: 2,8,4 for silicon, make you that, you are clear how to work out with Elements in The Perodic Table
2.1 Activity: One visual ways to help you understand with this different state.

Page 40: Experimental Skills 2.1,2.3 and self assessment

A chemical Rainbow experm, experiment on how you are made colours, how different metal salts produce different colours related to the colour, frequency, and energy of the light released.
2.3 activity modaling the arrangement of the Paricles model visual representation model and diagram should answer or take the period to make a solid.

Page 41: 2.3 Electronic Configuration (Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table)

Electron arrangement is key to understanding and predicting the properties and characteristics of an element. The properties and characteristics of each element are the basis for how all known elements are arranged in the periodic table.
You can Directly, link the electronic configuration of an Element to its position in the Periodic Table. The way number is on to the same Group Number/ Table in a period (Rho) Number of the Elements.

Page 42: 2.3 Electronic structure (Noble gas) Activity, summary

*Noble gases are all have fool show of Electrons.
*Activity subatomic and what strategies could you use visualising them: diagrams or experm giving colos
*Summarys:
-3 differrent physical states a substances

structures: particle separation arrangement and movement
_ change of state, changes with condirions and pressure
-pure substances and b.pts
kp models: particles in constnt movement and nature
.changing physical state, involves energy, cooling curves.
temperartture on the volumes in gases
-diffusion is a spreading process.
.rate of diffusion on molcular size

Page 43: Chapter 2 Project and exam questions

Proyect:

Making modling of the Atom. You are asked to dening a training tool to help.