Comprehensive Study Guide on the Crisis of the Spanish Empire and Peruvian Independence

Crisis in the Spanish Empire and the French Occupation (1808-1814)

The collapse of the Spanish imperial structure began with the French invasion of Spain, leading to a period of deep political instability from $1808$ to $1814$. During this time, Napoleon Bonaparte installed his brother, Joseph I Bonaparte (José I Bonaparte), as the King of Spain. This period was marked by the imposition of the Constitution of Bayonne in $1808$. In response to the foreign occupation, the Spanish people initiated the War of Independence and formed the "movimiento juntista" (Junta movement) to govern in the absence of the legitimate monarch.

The search for legitimacy and governance led to the convening of the Cortes de Cádiz in $1810$ by the Supreme Central Junta of the kingdom. This parliamentary body was notable for including representatives from the American colonies; however, certain regions such as Argentina and Venezuela did not send deputies. The Cortes issued several transformative decrees, including the declaration of legal equality between peninsular Spaniards and American Spaniards. Furthermore, they abolished the indigenous tribute and the mining mita, which were long-standing pillars of colonial economic exploitation.

In $1812$, the Constitution of Cádiz was promulgated, establishing a constitutional monarchy. This document explicitly stated that the nation was not the heritage of any single person or dynasty. It introduced fundamental liberties, such as the freedom of the press, religious freedom, and freedom of expression. A significant judicial and religious reform under this constitution was the elimination of the Holy Inquisition. The military context of this era involved complex alliances; for instance, France and Spain’s alliance initially forced Spain to accept a French military presence to attack Portugal from land, which eventually turned into an occupation of Spain itself. Key figures of this legislative period included Vicente Morales Duárez, and the events were later immortalized in art such as Salvador Viniegra's painting of the $1812$ Constitution.

The American Juntas and the Counter-Revolutionary Policy of Abascal (1809-1816)

In the Spanish American territories, Juntas de Gobierno (Government Juntas) were organized by criollos within the local cabildos (town councils). While most of these Juntas initially formed to support the King of Spain (known as fidelistas), many eventually evolved into separatist movements seeking full independence. The timeline of these Juntas across the continent includes Chuquisaca (the first Junta), La Paz, and Quito in $1809$, followed by Caracas, Buenos Aires, Santa Fe de Bogotá, and Santiago de Chile in $1810$.

The Viceroy of Peru, José Fernando de Abascal, implemented a vigorous counter-revolutionary policy between $1809$ and $1816$ to suppress these uprisings. In $1809$, he dispatched an army that defeated the Juntas of La Paz and Chuquisaca, as well as the Junta of Quito. Between $1810$ and $1815$, the Junta of Buenos Aires sent multiple expeditions to Alto Perú (Upper Peru) in an attempt to defeat Abascal's forces. Later, from $1813$ to $1814$, Abascal sent an expedition that successfully defeated the Government Junta of Santiago de Chile. Most of these regional movements were repressed by armies sent from Lima under Abascal's direction, though the movement in Buenos Aires managed to persist.

Intellectual Precursors: Reformists and Separatists

The movement towards independence was preceded by an intellectual awakening led by ideologues categorized as Reformists or Separatists. Reformists sought to correct the defects of the colonial regime through moderate changes without breaking ties with Spain. Their demands included freedom of the press and greater criollo access to public office. They expressed their ideas through "El Mercurio Peruano," an Enlightenment-influenced magazine that circulated between $1791$ and $1795$. This publication, directed in part by Jacinto Calero y Moreira, covered diverse topics ranging from "amor patrio" (patriotic love) and political reform to scientific studies on climate and the environment. Notable Reformists included Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, José de la Riva Agüero (who later shifted roles), Baquíjano y Carrillo, and Hipólito Unanue.

Separatists, on the other hand, proposed a definitive rupture with the Spanish metropolis through revolutionary war to achieve the emancipation of Hispano-America. Leading figures in this camp included Juan Pablo Vizcardo y Guzmán and José de la Riva Agüero. Their work laid the philosophical and strategic groundwork for the armed conflicts that would eventually secure independence from Spanish rule.

The 18th Century Andean Insurrections

Before the final push for independence, the $18th$ century saw major indigenous uprisings directed against the increasing fiscal burdens, exploitation, and pauperization caused by the Bourbon reforms. One prominent leader was Juan Santos Atahualpa, a Quechua leader educated by Jesuits in Cusco who claimed descent from the Incas. Between $1742$ and $1752$, he led a rebellion in the "selva central" (central jungle) or Gran Pajonal. The rebellion was fueled by the abuses of Franciscan missions, the salt mita, and various epidemics. Atahualpa formed alliances with diverse Amazonian ethnicities, including the Ashánincas, Piros, and Matsiguengas. By utilizing guerrilla warfare and superior knowledge of the rugged terrain, his forces achieved several victories over realist troops, and his rebellion in the region was never fully suppressed.

A later and even more significant uprising was led by Túpac Amaru II (José Gabriel Condorcanqui) between $1780$ and $1783$. The causes included rejection of Bourbon fiscal reforms (new taxes and customs), the exploitation of the mita in Potosí, and the legalization of the "reparto de mercancías" by corregidores. The first phase, the Quechua phase, centered in Cusco and expanded through the southern highlands and Alto Perú. Major events included the execution of Corregidor Arriaga in Tungasuca in $1780$ and the victory at the Battle of Sangarará. However, the movement faced a major defeat at Checacupe in $1781$, followed by Túpac Amaru II's execution in Cusco.

The second phase, or Aymara phase ($1781$), was led by Túpac Katari (Julián Apaza), who laid siege to the city of La Paz. He was eventually defeated by troops sent from Buenos Aires. Internal political differences prevented a strong alliance between the various rebel factions. Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru eventually accepted the Peace of Sicuani but was later betrayed and executed. The consequences of these rebellions were profound: the "reparto de mercancías" was suppressed, corregimientos were abolished in favor of intendencias, the Audiencia of Cusco was established, and authorities attempted to erase indigenous nobility symbols and banned the publication "Comentarios Reales" by Garcilaso de la Vega.

Criollo Rebellions and Conspiracies (1811-1814)

Between $1811$ and $1814$, a series of rebellions occurred with predominantly criollo leadership rather than mestizo or indigenous. These movements emerged from the interior of the country before the arrival of foreign liberating forces and featured inclusive, multi-ethnic political programs.

In $1811$, Francisco Antonio de Zela led an uprising in Tacna, influenced by the Argentine movements under Juan José Castelli, but it failed following the defeat at Huaqui. In $1812$, Juan José Crespo y Castillo led a rebellion in Huánuco driven by an alliance of criollos, mestizos, and indigenous people, which established a Government Junta but was defeated at the Battle of Ambo. A second uprising in Tacna occurred in $1813$, led by Paillardelle and supported by Manuel Belgrano's Argentine forces, though it was defeated at the Battle of Camiara. The most extensive rebellion was the Cusco movement of $1814$, led by the Angulo brothers (José, Vicente, and Mariano), Mateo Pumacahua, and the poet Mariano Melgar. This movement formed a Governing Junta in Cusco and reached Alto Perú, Huamanga, and Arequipa before being crushed at the Battle of Umachiri in $1815$.

The Southern Liberating Expedition (Corriente Libertadora del Sur)

Led by José de San Martín, the Southern Liberating Expedition began its major operations with the crossing of the Andes in $1817$. Following the Battle of Maipú in $1818$, which sealed the liberty of Chile, the expedition sailed north and landed at Paracas in $1820$. Military and diplomatic maneuvers followed: Álvarez de Arenales led an expedition to the central highlands, San Martín moved to Huaura, and Lord Cochrane blockaded the port of Callao. Two major diplomatic attempts—the Conference of Miraflores and the Conference of Punchauca (between San Martín and Viceroy La Serna)—failed because the realists insisted on defending the Constitution of Cádiz while San Martín sought independence.

Internal turmoil among the realists led to the "Motín de Aznapuquio," where Viceroy Pezuela was deposed. San Martín was eventually invited to Lima by the Junta of Notables of the cabildo. The Act of Independence was drafted on July $15$, $1821$ (by M.P. Tudela), and independence was officially proclaimed on July $28$, $1821$. Following this, San Martín established the Protectorate ($1821-1822$) with the goal of establishing a constitutional monarchy. He created three ministries: Foreign Relations (García del Río), Navy and War (Bernardo Monteagudo), and the Treasury (Hipólito Unanue). He also founded the Sociedad Patriótica de Lima to debate the merits of a monarchy versus a republic, featuring figures like Monteagudo (monarchy) and Sánchez Carrión (republic). His social reforms included the "Ley de Libertad de Vientres" (setting the children of slaves free at birth, though they remained a workforce) and the abolition of the tribute and mita to gain indigenous support. He also founded the National Library and established national symbols like the first flag (October $21$, $1820$) and the national anthem (composed by José Bernardo Alcedo and performed by Rosa Merino).

The First Constituent Congress and the Northern Expedition

Following San Martín's departure after the Guayaquil Conference with Simón Bolívar, the First Constituent Congress ($1822-1823$) was convened to draft a constitution and establish a political regime; they ultimately opted for a Republic. The congress was presided over by Francisco Javier de Luna Pizarro. The early republican period was marked by instability, including the failure of the First Campaign of Intermediate Ports at Torata and Moquegua. This led to the "Motín de Balconcillo," the first coup d'état in Peru, where military pressure from Santa Cruz forced the congress to name José de la Riva Agüero as president in February $1823$.

Riva Agüero’s government organized the Second Campaign of Intermediate Ports, but he was eventually destitute by Congress, leading to a split where he governed from Trujillo while José Bernardo de Tagle (Torre Tagle) was named president in Lima in August $1823$. Under Tagle, the first Constitution of Peru was promulgated in $1823$. Simón Bolívar arrived by invitation of the Congress and was named Dictator. Both Riva Agüero and Torre Tagle were later accused of attempting to ally with Viceroy La Serna.

The Northern Liberating Expedition ($1823-1826$) culminated in the decisive military actions of the Battle of Junín (August $6$, $1824$) led by Bolívar, and the Battle of Ayacucho (December $9$, $1824$) led by Antonio José de Sucre. These victories led to the Capitulation of Ayacucho, where Spain recognized its defeat and Peru committed to paying an indemnity. Bolívar subsequently attempted to form a continuous Hispanic American confederation via the Panama Congress of $1826$ and his proposed Federation of the Andes, which was based on a lifetime presidency. However, strong internal opposition led to the failure of these projects, and Bolívar eventually withdrew from Peru.