1. Emergence of Democratic States

1.0. Background

• Argentina had a long tradition of military rule since its independence in 1853.

• Military seized control on several occasions but was becoming increasingly unpopular in the 20th century.

1.1. Conditions that Encouraged the Demand for Democratic Reform

• Aftermath of War and/or Political Upheaval

  • The Falkland War (1982)

    • Motivations:

      • Restoring national pride - through resolving land disputes and in an attempt to build a popular following.

        • Argentina had claims on disputed territory with Chile (Beagle Channel Islands) and with Britain (Falkland Islands).

      • The military decided to invade, believing it would prompt no response and confident they could force Britain to negotiate.

    • Defeat produced discontent with the military and by extension its government due to;

      • Poor planning from commanding officers.

      • Ill-equipped troops and non-trained soldiers.

    • Aftermath:

      • Despite discontent with the military, the junta remained in power for a year but caused internal division with the navy and air force, which ultimately withdrew from the junta.

      • General Reynaldo Bignone was appointed the new president and was swift to transfer power, effectively ending military rule.

• Political Factors

  • The Dirty War (1976 - 1983)

    • Campaign to remove left-wing guerillas and its supporters which resulted in the murder or disappearance of 20,000 Argentinians.

    • Suspects were not formally tried and were arrested based on suspicions and accusations.

    • At first, the campaign helped the military rule from fear.

• Social and Economic Factors

  • Economic crisis

    • By 1983, inflation reached 200%, making it one of the highest in the world.

    • Between 1976 and 1982, the GDP declined 0.2% annually. In 4 out of 7 years, the GDP fell in absolute terms, meaning the produce was compared with the local industry and not in comparison with foreign industries.

    • The economic crisis forced 35% of industrial workers out of their jobs.

    • Income fell by 30% - 50%.

  • Growing protests:

    • Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo (established 1977): association of mothers who lost their children during the Dirty War.

      • Their protests attracted international attention which weakened the military rule’s image abroad.

    • 1981 - 1983: Protests motivated by the worsening economic crisis demanded a change to democratic rule

• External Influences

  • Growing international scrutiny due to human rights abuses claims.

  • The Dirty War’s human rights abuses claims discredited the military government amongst the international community.

1.2. The Role and Significance of Leaders

• Political parties: The Radicals

  • The Radical Civic Union emerged in the 19th century with the ideas to extend political participation to lower classes and bring social change.

  • The party was one of the contenders in the 1983 election alongside the Peronists

  • Raul Alfonsin, who was elected leader of the Radicals in 1983, argued his party could establish democratic rule since the party had no connections with the military.

    • The Radicals exposed alliances between the Peronists and the military, which helped the party secure wide-reaching support.

1.3. Development of Political Parties; Constitutions and Electoral Systems; the Significance/Impact of that Development

• Development: Political Parties

  • In the last years of military rule, there were two main political parties the Partido Justicialista (PJ) (also known as the Peronists) and the Union Civica Radical (UCR) (Radical Civic Union also known as the Radicals).

  • Partido Justicialista (PJ) (the Peronists)

    • Established in 1946.

    • Based on Peronism - named after Juan Peron, a political movement inspired by social justice, aiming to enhance the life of the lower classes and represent organized labor.

    • The party's main voters came from the urban working classes and the rural workers.

    • Despite its social outlook, under Peron, the party took an authoritarian leadership. It also supported and protected state-controlled industries.

    • After the 1983 election defeat, the party realized it needed a new image. A faction within the party known as the ‘Renovation’ group wanted to modernize the party and even ran a separate campaign in 1985.

      • This event encouraged a more democratic approach in selecting candidates for the 1989 presidential election.

    • Some events which illustrated the PJ’s shift to democratization include;

      • 1987: The Peronist party offered unconditional support to the Radical administration after an attempted military seizure of power.

        • This demonstrated a break from its alliances with the military.

      • The party created committees, expanded its district organization, and elected national leadership through direct vote, showing its move to become a more traditional political party.

      • Carlos Menem's election in 1989 showed a broadening supporter base, attracting support from the middle class.

  • Radical Civic Union (Radicals)

    • Established in the 19th century.

    • Aimed to engage lower classes in political participation and bring social justice.

    • The party’s main supporters came from the urban and rural middle class but gained working-class support in the 1980s.

    • Traditionally the party was the opposition to the elected government.

    • It is the only major party not associated with military rule, a key factor in its 1983 presidential election victory.

    • Impact and significance

  • Emergence of Other Political Parties

    • Limited opportunities for the establishment of other parties until the 1990s.

    • 1990s: The formation of FREPASO - coalition of a federation of parties. This was the first time a socialist group gained prominence, which was previously sidelined by the PJ and its influence over workers.

    • 1982: Establishment of the Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) - right-wing leaning party which favors minimal state intervention.

• Development: Constitutions

  • The Argentine constitution allowed the president to be in office for one term of six years without an option for re-election.

  • Olivos Pact (1993): a set of reforms to the constitutions, which included the presidential re-election but reduced its term office to 4 years.

    • The pact was signed between newly elected president Carlos Menem and Raul Alfonsin.

    • The reforms were approved through a national vote in 1994.

  • Impact and Significance

    • Re-election allowed the continuation of one administration but the president’s power was limited through the use of rule by decree.

    • Reforms positively affected how senators were elected - three senators needed to be elected for each province, with the third representing the party that gained the highest vote in each province, which guaranteed wider representation.

• Development: Electoral System

  • Candidates to the Chamber of Deputies were elected through a ‘closed list’ system.

  • Political parties would draw a list of candidates in rank order.

    • This meant, candidates who were higher on the list were more likely to be elected.

  • Impact and Significance

    • The ‘closed list’ system granted power to party bosses because aspiring politicians were obliged to be remarkable within their party to be considered potential candidates.

    • The system to some extent reduced democracy and increased the power of political elites.

2. The Development of Democratic States

2.1. Factors Influencing the Evolution of Democratic States

• Ideology

  • Power of Military

    • The military attempted to be exempted from investigations and trials over the Dirty War abuses.

    • Alfonsin aimed to make the military accountable but initially needed to be cautious against the possibility of a military coup.

    • The rapid military rule collapse benefitted Alfonsin and the consolidation of democracy - the armed forces never reached an agreement over what they would be tried on (armed forces wanted to be consulted on military and economic policy), therefore the government was free to persecute them as they found suitable.

  • Even though the Peronists' links with the military and their agreements to stop prosecutions led to the Radical's victory in 1983, the party needed to rebuild public faith in democracy and political parties.

  • The Radical government had a Peronist majority in the Senate, meaning it would be difficult to reach a consensus or pass laws.

    • This was evident in 1984 when the Peronists blocked a reform to make unions more democratic by demanding an internal election process.

• Economic Forces

  • In 1983, The Radicals inherited an economy on the verge of collapse - the country’s foreign debt amounted to $43.5 billion, industrial workers fell to 35%, inflation was at 200% and the consumer price rose to 100% in 9 years.

  • Agriculture was the country’s main sector while most industry was protected by the state.

    • Agriculture had slumped production while the industry’s working was inefficient.

  • Alfonsin wanted to modernize the economy by increasing productivity, selling exports, and bringing much-needed revenue however he faced setbacks;

    • Improving efficiency in the state-protected industrial sectors would result in large-scale unemployment and potentially trigger social unrest.

    • The agriculture sector needed to improve production to compete in the export market, at the expense of weakening the industry sector, which was protected from foreign competition through tariffs.

  • Attempts of modernization illustrated a conflict of demands between the city and the countryside - agriculture needed to export while industry needed to be protected from foreign competition.

  • Despite democracy being established, Menem resorted to bribes and corruption to keep factions within the Peronist party.

  • Under Menem, democracy was further undermined through the constant use of rule by decrees, cronyism, and corruption.

  • The government also implemented a policy of privatization of state-run businesses, where corruption was more evident such as in

    • 1990: Somisa Privatisation Scandal: supervised by Maria Julia Alsogaray, a Menem supporter who was accused of corruption, collusion, and illicit profits after the company was allegedly sold for far less than expected.

• Foreign Influences

  • Alfonsin exhibited a stable and democratic image to the international community by;

    • Participating in peace negotiations in Nicaragua

    • Building close ties with the US and Britain, especially after the Falkland War.

  • These events along with the 1984 Beagle Channel Islands referendum guaranteed that the country was committed to democratic processes.

• Foreign Policy

  • While the Falkland Islands claim could not be revised, the government took a more democratic approach to their claims of the islands in the Beagle Channel.

    • 1984 Referendum: 80% of voters agreed to hand over the islands to Chile.

2.2. Responses to, and Impact of Domestic Crises

• Economic Crisis

  • The worsening economic crisis was a detrimental factor for the Radical victory in 1983 as well as the transition to democracy.

  • Furthermore, protests, which were banned during the military regime, were partly motivated by the deplorable economic conditions.

  • Alfonsin responded to the economic crisis and inflation through the Austral Plan.

    • Austral Plan

      • A program that introduced a new currency, the Austral, and froze prices. By doing this, the government hoped people would stop exchanging their currency for US Dollars, therefore, preventing money from leaving the country.

      • The plan was initially successful in stabilizing the economy by reinforcing events such as the decline of inflation and enhancing industry.

  • The Radicals attempted to control the worsening situation through the Little Austral Plan.

    • Little Austral Plan

      • Launched in February 1987, it attempted to bring new wage and price controls.

      • The plan was unsuccessful, resulting in Peronists being the most-voted party to the Chamber of Deputies in the 1987 elections.

  • Failure of the Radicals and Alfonsin to fix economic problems led to Peronist's victory in the Presidential elections. This suggested most Argentines believed in democracy since they shifted their support to another political party.

  • When Menem assumed the presidency, he aimed to tackle the economic crisis by meeting market forces of supply and demand, which would shape economic recovery.

  • Policies aimed to reduce state spending, eliminate state intervention, and bring foreign competition and investment.

    • July Decrees (1990)

      • A series of laws opened Argentina to imports and cut subsidies and protection for domestic companies.

      • Initially, the laws stabilized prices, allowing a to sell state-run companies.

    • The Convertibility Plan (April 1991)

      • A new currency, the New Peso was introduced in March, to allow free exchange between the peso and the dollar.

      • The plan was a measure to prevent the president from freely altering the currency by modifying the exchange rate or printing money to pay debts.

    • Mercosur (1991):

      • A treaty (also known as the Common Market of the South), signed with Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, opened the Argentinian economy.

      • The treaty also linked the signatories’ markets for industrial and agricultural goods from 1991 to 1995.

  • Menem’s constant use of rule by decree as well as growing allegations of corruption and cronyism (especially during the privatisation process) undermined democracy. Argentines believed these policies were only serving the political elite.

• Threat from Military

  • The military weakened during 1983 - 1995 but still led to uprisings due to;

    • Diminishing influence in society and intervention in the government

    • Opposed inquiries over Dirty War abuses, refusing to be held accountable.

    • Protests budget cuts that threatened military careers.

  • Easter Rebellion (1987) - Alfonsin

    • Led by Major General Barreiro as a response to the ongoing government investigations during the Dirty War.

    • 14 April 1987: Barreiro occupied a military base near Cordoba, which was followed by Lieutenant Colonel Aldo Rico's occupation of an army base in Buenos Aires on April 17.

    • Response:

      • The government responded to the crisis by commanding the army to capture the rebels, and later negotiating the end of the crisis, partly because the army refused to attack or fight the rebels.

    • Aftermath:

      • The response was favorably viewed until Alfonsin increased the armed forces pay by 40%. Additionally, there were rumors of deals that halted prosecutions, making the government lose credibility.

      • Lt. Rico escaped and organised a rebellion in the north-east in 1988 which was suppressed after a brief combat.

      • The armed forces' support in the 1988 rebellion and less military support for Rico demonstrated military influence and threat were gradually being undermined.

  • Carapintadas Uprisings (1987 - 1990) - Menem

    • A series of uprisings, led by Colonel Mohammed Seineldin.

    • 1988: First unsuccessful uprising given lack of support. Seineldin was pardoned by then-president-elect Menem in 1989.

    • December 1990: Seineldin led a second uprising, which resulted in casualties.

    • Response

      • Menem ordered armed forces to attack and to hold those responsible for the uprising accountable.

      • Seineldin was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment.

      • Subsequently, Martin Balza, who led the counter-rebellion efforts, was appointed army commander.

    • Aftermath

      • Menem’s measures are thought to be more effective than Alfonsin’s - he took a harsher response and with Balza’s appointment, he demonstrated military authority was now subordinate to civilian authority.

2.3. Struggle for Equality: Suffrage Movements; Civil Protests

• The General Confederation of Labour (CGT) strike

  • A strike of various unions, as a response to the attempted coup in Easter 1987.

  • The coup, otherwise known as the Easter Rebellion (1987), was led by Major Ernesto Barreiro, who refused to appear in court during the Dirty War proceedings.

  • This large-scale demonstration suggested most of the civilian population was in favor of democracy and democratic process.

    • Furthermore, various leaders from all political parties, industrial, and producer organizations, and the Catholic Church signed a petition in support of democracy.

• Mothers of Plaza de Mayo

  • Most influential pressure group in the early years of the Alfonsin government. Some of their achievement include;

  • Repeated calls for the investigation of perpetrators in the Dirty War resulted in court proceedings beginning earlier than expected, in the summer of 1983

  • September 1984: successfully pressured President Alfonsin to set up the National Commission Concerning the Disappearance of Persons

• Families of the Victims of Subversion

  • An association that sought justice for those attacked by guerrillas and insurgent forces during the Dirty War.

  • Like the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo, they wanted to have perpetrators trials.

  • However, the group was not as successful and the government dismissed their demands.

3. Impact of Democracy on Society

3.1. Social and Economic Policies and Reforms: Education; Social Welfare; Policies Towards Women and Minorities, the Distribution of Wealth

• Economic Policies and Reforms

  • Alfonsin

    • Austral Plan (1985): The Austral, a new currency is introduced and the prices are freeze

    • Little Austral (1987): Launched as an attempt to counter the first plan’s success, by controlling prices and introducing new wages.

  • Menem

    • The new administration attempted to solve the crisis by stopping state intervention and privatization.

    • July Decrees (1990): A set of laws which took away the state protection to local business by cutting subsidies.

    • The Convertibility Plan (April 1991): Scheme which prevent presidential intervention in currency exchange and reforms.

• Social Policies and Reforms:

  • Education

    • The Radical government reconstructed universities based on academic excellence in an attempt to create mass literacy.

    • Secondary education was optional and 14% of the population finished school.

    • Only 4% of school graduates pursued a university degree.

  • Social Welfare

    • Dismantled under the Radicals government, given the rise of unemployment and its inefficiency.

    • 1989: Introduction of the National Nutritional Programme to provide food for low-income communities.

  • Minorities and Women

    • 1987: Divorce was legalised, after a failed attempt in 1954 (during Peron’s government) and facing opposition from the Church.

    • Moreover, other laws modernized family relations by tackling issues such as shared custody.

3.2. The Extent To Which Citizens Benefit From Those Policies

• Economic Policies and Reforms:

  • Alfonsin

    • Austral Plan (1985): as well as the Little Austral Plan proved to be ineffective. The currency rapidly lost value; by 1989 the exchange rate was $1 to 175 australs, in contrast with the starting 1985 value of $1 equal to 1 austral.

    • In 1989, Inflation increased to 150% and an annual monthly rate of 5000%.

    • The workforce was largely uneducated, meaning the economy could not be modernized.

      • The country largely lived off agricultural exports. This was evident in 1987 when the country experienced a bad harvest, which contributed to the economic decline.

  • Menem

    • July Decrees (1990): Alternatively, the laws pushed the nation into recession. Meanwhile, hyperinflation had not been tackled.

    • The Convertibility Plan (April 1991): Citizens had previously experienced instability due to the Austral plan. The fact that the plan and changes were officialized through legislation, gave the scheme some credibility and earned support from political classes.

    • Policies of privatization created huge unemployment, especially amongst government employees as well as with shops and businesses that worked with the state through contracts and purchases.

• Social Policies and Reforms:

  • Education

    • While university admissions were more competitive, the government reduced its funding, meaning students had to work with old equipment and universities could not afford basic maintenance at times.

    • The lack of university enrollment (only 4%) hindered the attempts to create an educated workforce

  • Social Welfare

    • By the end of the Alfonsin government, the standard of living had quickly declined. Program could only support a small group but did not solve the situation for most citizens.

    • Services were in poor condition - people faced power for six hours per day and water shortages.

  • Minorities and women

    • Laws gave women equal rights to men concerning their children.

3.3. Cultural impact: Freedom of Expression in the Arts and Media

• Freedom of expression was closely linked to education reforms which aimed to create mass literacy and encouraged debate.

• Groups of intellectuals and scientists emerged in universities, which had been previously sidelined since the 1966 coup.