Political Philosophy Final Review and Philosophical Definitions

The Inherent Problem of the Surface and the Nature of Thinking

• The Relation Between the Surface and the Heart: The problem inherent in the surface of things, and only the surface of things, is the heart of things.

• The Catalyst for Thinking: Thinking only happens when you notice something is "wrong" in the surface.

• Attention and the World: One's attention is only grabbed by the world when something is noticed as being "off," missing, or not being what it is supposed to be.

The Threefold Structure of Human Existence

• Human as a Project:     * You are "already here" and were already "made."     * The individual is something constantly "being made."

• Human as a Projection:     * You find yourself in a world that is already made.     * Things come to "make sense" to you and feel "natural."     * Existence involves learning what goes with what and learning how to "see."

• Human as a Projectile:     * You are "thrown" into this world, specifically at this time, right now.     * You must always pursue a life that is "ahead of you."     * A human being is defined as "possibility."

The Sociality of Human Beings and the Natural Aspect of Politics

• Impossibility of Solitude: A human being cannot be a human being alone.

• Enmeshment in Language: Humans are always enmeshed in a world of language.     * Language allows for dialogue about oneself.     * Language allows for dialogue about the world.     * Language allows for dialogue about things seemingly outside of this world.

• The Naturalness of Politics: Politics is natural for human beings because there are inherent questions: "How should we live?"

• Foundations of Political Philosophy: The question of political philosophy emerges once we understand we are discussing the fundamental human condition: "How are we to be in this world?"

Three Answer Framework for "What is Political Philosophy?"

• Answer 1: Philosophizing about Politics (Doxa):     * This is the common understanding held by most people, most of the time ($\text{doxa}$).     * It consists of thinking about political structures and processes:         * How does the separation of powers work?         * How best can we get out the vote?         * What makes democracies succeed and what makes them fail?     * The Problem: This is merely the beginning point or the "surface." It raises the question: what does it mean to "philosophize" or to "think"?

• Answer 2: The Coexistence of Philosophy and the City:     * Based on Socrates, this answer explores the permanent tension between philosophy and the city.     * Management of Truth: Political philosophy is the act of making philosophy "safe" from the city because if the truth is said outright, the city will kill the philosopher.     * Managing Doxa: Political philosophy involves managing the opinions ($\text{doxa}$) of the city in two specific ways:         1. Esoteric Meaning: Hiding the real meaning. One says what people want to hear but leaves a "crack in the surface" or "a little light in the cave" for potential prisoners to see, counting on the fact that most people will not understand the true meaning.         2. Aufklärung (Clarification): Making philosophy more palatable to the city slowly over time. This involves "watering down" the truth for mass consumption to bring light to the cave, starting where most people are and trying to clarify their vision ($\text{Aufklärung}$).

• Answer 3: The Radical Inquiry into Misunderstandings:     * Political philosophy is the enquiry into the misunderstandings of both philosophy and the city.     * Socratic Lesson: The death of Socrates teaches that human beings are wedded to the belief that there is something true, eternal, enduring, or certain. They will devote their lives to finding it and kill each other for it.     * The Tragedy of Philosophy: The history of political philosophy is the tragedy of human beings thinking beyond their lived experiences as projects, projections, and projectiles.     * Authenticity: This radical view asks whether we can live authentically (attributing this perspective to Socrates rather than Plato).

Final Exam Logistics and Schedule

• Date: Thursday, April 30.

• Time: $10:00\text{ AM}$ to $12:50\text{ PM}$.

Final Exam Structure and Content

• Question Format: Multiple choice questions.

• Quantity: Approximately $100$ questions.

• Scope: Cumulative coverage from John Locke to Plato.

• Focus of Questions:     * Less emphasis on simple facts found in reading quizzes.     * More emphasis on identification of arguments (e.g., "Which philosopher argued XYZ?").     * Deeper exploration of meaning (e.g., "What is Plato’s argument about XYZ?").

• Comparative Analysis: There will be questions comparing multiple thinkers (e.g., "What would Machiavelli and Locke say about XYZ?").

• Justification Requirement:     * Some questions require selecting the correct answer and providing a written justification.     * Length: A few sentences (approximately $100$ to $200$ words).     * Example Justification:         * Question: "What is the highest level of knowledge for Plato?"         * Choice: "C. The Good."         * Justification: "According to Plato’s divided line, the highest knowledge is the knowledge of the Good. Plato says that this is because the Good is that which enlightens everything else and is similar to the sun. The good is abstract, which is why it is higher than the shadows and physical things."

Final Quiz Assignment: Question Creation

• Submission Platform: Upload a document on Canvas.

• Requirements:     * Write $3$ possible final-exam questions based on the course.     * At least $1$ question must be a comparison between two thinkers.     * Each question must have $4$ answer choices.     * The correct answer must be identified.     * Include a brief explanation for why the answer is correct.

• Quality Constraints:     * Incorrect answers must be plausible distractors, not obvious nonsense.     * Prohibited from using questions from previous quizzes.