Art History Notes: Prehistoric to Renaissance

Prehistoric Art (2,500,000 BCE - 2000 BCE)

  • The Question of Defining Art:
    • Dietrich Stout (Emory University) notes the difficulty in defining "art," especially in Paleolithic contexts.
    • Early archaeologists recognized technical skill, diverse materials, and the use of tools like torchlight.
    • Cave paintings suggested that early humans were cognitively modern, able to create physical representations of mental images.
    • Brain development is linked to higher functions like language and creative expression.

Prehistoric Culture: The Stone Age

  • Paleolithic Period:
    • Longest phase of the Stone Age, characterized by hunter-gatherer cultures.
    • Divided into:
      • Lower Paleolithic (2,500,000-200,000 BCE)
      • Middle Paleolithic (200,000-40,000 BCE)
      • Upper Paleolithic (40,000-10,000 BCE)
  • Mesolithic Period:
    • Transitional phase (epipaleolithic).
    • Ended with the spread of agriculture.
  • Neolithic Period:
    • The New Stone Age.
    • Marked by the establishment of permanent settlements.
  • End of the Stone Age:
    • Stone tools were replaced by bronze and iron metallurgy.
    • Followed by the Bronze Age and Iron Age.

Representative Artworks and Periods

  • Cupule and Meander Petroglyph (c.290,000-700,000 BCE):
    • Auditorium Cave, Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    • Considered the world's oldest art.
  • Rock Art from Bhimbetka (7000 BCE):
    • Created over 250,000 years after the first petroglyphs and cupules.
  • Oldest Known Prehistoric Art:
    • Series of petroglyphs in quartzite caves in India (Auditorium Cave at Bhimbetka and Daraki-Chattan).
  • Cupules:
    • Non-utilitarian hemispherical cup-shaped depressions hammered out of rock surfaces.

Mobiliary Art (40,000-2,500 BCE)

  • Definition:
    • Small-scale prehistoric art that is moveable (mobile).
    • Includes most forms of prehistoric sculpture.
  • Venus Figurines:
    • Stone Age statuettes of women with similar size and shape (obese or pregnant).
    • Carved from various materials: soft stone, bone, ivory, wood, or ceramic clays.
  • Examples:
    • Venus of Galgenberg (c.30,000 BCE): Oldest Stone Age art found in Austria (also known as The Stratzing Figurine).
    • Venus of Dolni Vestonice (26,000 BCE): Earliest Czech sculpture.
    • Venus of Monpazier (c.25,000 BCE): Among the oldest art in France.
    • Venus of Willendorf (c.25,000 BCE): A masterpiece of prehistoric mobiliary art.

Cave Art: Parietal Art

  • Definition:
    • Man-made image on the walls, ceiling, or floor of a cave or rock shelter.
  • Types of Cave Art:
    • Hand prints and finger marks.
    • Abstract signs.
    • Figurative painting.
    • Rock engraving.
    • Relief sculpture.
  • Examples:
    • Drawing of Giant Fish (Halibut) at La Pileta Cave (c.18,000 BCE).
    • Painting of Pregnant Mare (Cueva de la Pileta).
    • Lascaux Cave: "Hall of the Bulls" (dating from 17,000 BCE).
    • "The Shaft Scene" in the Shaft of the Dead Man at Lascaux Cave.

Megaliths (4500-1000 BCE)

  • Definition:
    • Large, often undressed stones used in Neolithic, Chalcolithic, or Bronze Age monuments.
  • Purpose:
    • Used in ceremonial or ritualistic structures.
    • Examples: Stonehenge stone circle, monolithic Moai of Easter Island, tombs (Newgrange, Knowth), sanctuaries (Gobekli Tepe).
  • Construction:
    • Sophisticated construction and alignment.
    • Specific rock shapes hewn to meet design requirements.
    • Positioned in relation to stars or the solstice.
  • Examples:
    • Stonehenge Stone Circle (2,600 BCE): Famous example of Neolithic art.
    • Crucuno Dolmen (c.4000 BCE): Plouharnel, Brittany, topped with a 40-ton capstone.

Egyptian Art (3100 BCE – 395 CE)

  • Significance:
    • Major contributor to late Neolithic art.
    • Best known form of ancient art in the Mediterranean basin before Greek civilization (c.600 BCE).
  • Features:
    • Egyptian Pyramids.
    • Hieroglyphics (writing script based on pictures and symbols).
    • Hieratic style of painting and stone carving.
  • Function:
    • To glorify the gods (including the Pharaoh) and facilitate human passage into the after-life.
    • To assert, propagandize, and preserve the values of the day.
  • Examples:
    • Tuthankamen's Burial Mask (c.1323 BCE): Includes 11 kilograms of solid gold.
    • Hypostyle Hall, Karnak temple, Luxor (Begun 16th century BCE): Illustrates the massive scale of monumental Egyptian architecture.
    • Scene from the Book of the Dead (Thebes Dynasty c.1000 BCE).

Classical Art (8 BCE – 393 CE)

  • Scope:
    • Encompasses the cultures of Greece and Rome.
    • Cornerstone of Western civilization.
  • Ideals:
    • Pursued ideals of beauty, harmony, and proportion.
    • Shifted and changed over the centuries.
  • Focus:
    • Human figure and the human experience of space.
    • Relationship with the gods.
  • Values:
    • Nobility of character and military prowess.
    • Pantheon of gods and goddesses (before Christianity).
    • Offerings were made to these gods for prosperity and protection.
  • Innovations:
    • Greek sculpture emphasized the depiction of realistic human features.
    • Sculptures were idealized based on the standards of beauty at the time.
    • Frescoes (murals painted on fresh plaster) were popular.
    • Depictions of gods, battles, processions, hunting, flora, and fauna.
    • Male athletes became a common subject matter, representing physical perfection, beauty, and strong character.
  • Ancient Greek Beauty Standards:
    • A beautiful body indicated a beautiful mind (Kaloskagathos).
    • Ideal for men: muscular and masculine.
    • Full-lipped and chiseled faces were considered beautiful.
    • Small penises were desired (big penises were seen as vulgar).
    • Ideal traits: "gleaming chest, bright skin, broad shoulders, tiny tongue, strong buttocks, and a little prick."
    • Small, flaccid penis represented self-control and good morals.
    • Ideal for females: softly shapen with rounded buttocks, long, wavy hair, and a gentle face.
    • Larger women with extra fat showed wealth and the ability to eat to their satisfaction.
    • Aphrodite (Goddess of love, sex, beauty, and fertility) was the beauty ideal (round face, large breasts, and a pear-shaped body).
    • Redheads were considered the epitome of beauty (ginger hair associated with courage and honor).
    • Nakedness was seen as a heroic state of being.
    • Gymnasiums (from the Greek gymnos, meaning naked) were filled with naked men.
    • Homosexual sex was common.
    • Women were often shown draped in clingy shrouds.
    • Nudity was not seen as sexual as it is in modern society.
  • Examples:
    • Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) by Polycleitus (c. 440 BCE).
    • The Parthenon (447-432 BCE).
    • Venus de Milo (130-100 BCE).
    • Augustus of Prima Porta (1st Century CE).
    • Pantheon (113-125 CE).

Medieval Period (300 AD - 1400 AD)

  • Timeline:

    • From the fall of the Roman Empire in 300 AD to the beginning of the Renaissance in 1400 AD.

  • Themes:

    • Biblical subjects, Christian dogma, and Classical mythology.

  • Divisions:

    • Early Christian Art
    • Byzantine art
    • Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art
    • Gothic art

  • Regional Variations:

    • Artistic styles varied greatly from region to region within Europe.

  • Social Context:

    • Dominated by feudalism.
    • Nobles controlled the lands.
    • Vast differences between the upper and lower classes.
    • Religion bridged the gap between social groups.

  • Role of Religion:

    • Many artists were priests and monks.
    • Art was used to communicate Biblical accounts due to rising illiteracy.
    • Art became more stylized, losing classical naturalism.

  • Illuminated Manuscripts:

    • Monks and nuns copied illuminated manuscripts.
    • These manuscripts became art forms themselves.
    • Narratives of a Biblical nature were favored.
    • Style leaned towards abstracted figures.

  • Main Divisions of Middle Ages Art:

    • Art expressed social, political, and historical events through church buildings.
    • Agreed upon periods: Early Christian, Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic.

  • Early Christian Period:

    • Developed after the Roman Empire adopted Christianity.
    • Christian art grew in popularity.
    • Concerns arose around creating images of the Deity.
    • Few sacred artworks survived the first three centuries.
    • Most existing artworks come from catacombs.
    • Numerous churches were constructed.

  • Byzantine Period:

    • Combination of Roman and Oriental arts.
    • Lack of realism; focused on symbolism.
    • Paintings were flat with no shadows; subjects appeared serious and grim.
    • Architecture was grandiose and dazzling.
    • Churches represented the dominating religion of Christianity.
    • Most artwork has been destroyed.

  • Romanesque Period:

    • Included stained glass, engravings, murals, illuminated manuscripts, and sculptures.
    • Buildings were enormous, powerful, and foreboding.
    • Simple surface adornments showcased a simplistic way of life.
    • Structural forms were based on interpretations of Roman architecture.

  • Gothic Period:

    • More shadows and light were used.
    • Experimented with broad and new subject matters.
    • Religion was dropped as the most important element.
    • New subjects included animals and mythic scenes.
    • Figures depicted made use of more realism; paintings became more lifelike.
    • Rise in universities and trade led to a new class that could afford artistic commissions.
    • Artists explored more earthly and non-religious themes.

  • Examples:

    • Cologne Cathedral.
    • La Dame à la licorne (The Lady and the Unicorn).
    • Last Supper (1304-1306) by Giotto di Bondone.
    • Stained glass window with the Stories of San Giacomo Maggiore by Corrado de ‘Mochis.
    • Hagia Sophia, built in 537 A.D.
    • Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels.

Renaissance Period (1400 AD - 1600 AD)

  • Transition from Medieval Values:

    • Scholars believe that the Renaissance did not mark an abrupt break with medieval values.
    • Interest in nature, humanistic learning, and individualism were already present in the late medieval period.
    • Became dominant in 15th- and 16th-century Italy.
    • Concurrent with social and economic changes (secularization, rise of rational money-credit economy, increased social mobility).

  • Resurrection of Human Ideals:

    • Byzantine and Medieval paintings depicted individuals as firm and non-emotional.
    • Renaissance art started to depict individual characters with genuine demeanors and physical appearances.

  • Resurrection of Naturalism:

    • More accentuation on the human body's anatomy.
    • Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo studied dead bodies to understand human muscles.

  • Originality:

    • Renaissance artists specialized in their works.
    • Used details to add profundity.
    • Developed the concept of a "disappearing point."
    • Profundity point of view helped create unique original works of art.

  • Nonreligious Topics:

    • Some Renaissance artwork centered around religious subjects and Bible characters.
    • A pattern emerged toward painting scenes that were not religious.
    • "Arnolfini Marriage" by Jan van Eyck includes a mirror as a back divider for the painting.

  • Exclusivity:

    • In Medieval times, the church was the primary source of financing for various craftsmanship.
    • Italian families (e.g., the Medici family) began commissioning craftsmanship for private proprietorship.
    • Painters often included individuals from the benefactor's family directly into a Biblical scene.
    • "Supper at Emmaus" by Veronese includes family members as supporters.

  • Notable Artists:

    • Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci
      • Italian polymath (painter, sculptor, mathematician, engineer, designer, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and author).
      • Model of the Renaissance Man (man of many talents).
    • Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni
      • Italian artist, painter, sculptor, and specialist of the High Renaissance art.
      • His influence on western craftsmanship is unrivaled.
      • Thought as one of the best craftsman ever
    • Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (Raphael)
      • Italian painter and draftsman.
      • His work is appreciated for its clearness of structure, simplicity, and visual accomplishment of the Neoplatonic human form.
      • A significant number of his works are found in the Vatican Palace.
    • Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi (Donatello)
      • A gifted Italian sculpture.
      • He studied the old-style designs of Romans and Greeks and utilized his understanding to create a totally unique Renaissance style in the figure that he worked with.
      • Worked with stone, bronze, wood, mud, stucco, and wax.