United States History Regents Content Comprehensive Review Guide
Unit 1: Colonial America
Settlements and Locations
Jamestown, Virginia: Settled by businessmen from England. While they originally sought gold, they began growing and selling cash crops such as tobacco after being taught how to grow it by local American Indians.
The area possessed very fertile soil, and Virginia evolved into a powerful colony of tobacco plantations (large farms where enslaved Africans performed all labor).
The population consisted primarily of young, white men and enslaved Africans.
Massachusetts Bay (Plymouth): Settled by Puritans from England who were seeking religious freedom from the King and the Church of England.
Puritans constructed towns with small farms on the outskirts.
The population was composed of religious family groups.
New Amsterdam: Settled by Dutch traders on Manhattan island. Initially, the primary trade was in furs.
The British later took over New Amsterdam and renamed it New York.
Geography and Regional Differences
The American colonies were built along the Atlantic coastline. Settlement occurred closer to the shoreline to facilitate trade. The western boundary of the colonies was the Appalachian Mountains.
Regional variations were driven by the geography of the land and the identity of the settlers:
New England Colonies: Farming was difficult due to rocky soil. The population resided in small towns and relied on small-scale farming for individual needs. Key economic activities included trading lumber, fish, and practicing shipbuilding. The population was highly religious.
Middle Colonies: This region possessed fertile soil and a diverse landscape. It became known as the ‐breadbasket colonies‐ because it primarily grew wheat, barley, rye, corn, and oats. The initial population was mostly young white men serving as indentured servants until , when enslaved Africans were first brought to Jamestown.
Southern Colonies: This region featured a warm climate and a long growing season, ideal for cash crops like tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, indigo, and rice. The population contained significantly more enslaved Africans than white people; consequently, Southern colonies passed slave codes to limit the rights and movement of enslaved Africans.
Economic and Political Foundations
Mercantilism: The British used this economic practice to control the colonies. Great Britain (the mother country) used the colonies for two main purposes:
To obtain raw materials.
To create new markets for selling products.
Under this system, colonies were prohibited from competing economically with the mother country.
Salutary Neglect: The British followed a policy of leaving the American colonies alone in their day-to-day lives, provided that raw materials were continuously shipped to Great Britain and colonists bought only British-made products.
Triangular Trade System:
Merchants transported raw materials from the colonies to Europe.
European goods were sold in Africa and the American colonies.
Captured Africans were sold in the American colonies as slaves.
Early Democracy and Self-Government:
Mayflower Compact (): An agreement among the first Puritan settlers in Massachusetts to follow the idea of self-government.
House of Burgesses: Located in Virginia, this was the first elected legislature in the American colonies. It served as the first step toward representative government, where people elected representatives to make laws.
Town Hall Meetings: In New England, every town had a meeting hall for public decision-making meetings.
Unit 2: The American Revolution
The End of Salutary Neglect
In , the British won the French & Indian War. Colonists and British soldiers fought against the French and American Indians for control of the fertile Ohio River Valley.
Following the war, the British abandoned the policy of salutary neglect due to a tremendous increase in national debt. They believed they needed to tighten control to recoup money spent protecting the colonies.
The British passed new taxes, including the Stamp Act, the Sugar Act, and the Tea Act.
Colonists viewed these taxes as unfair because they lacked representation in the British Parliament, leading to the slogan: ‐No Taxation Without Representation.‐
Colonial Protest and Resistance
Stamp Act Congress: A meeting in New York City where colonists created a unified response to the Stamp Act.
Homespun Movement: A movement where colonial women made clothing and textiles themselves to boycott British goods.
Sons of Liberty: A secret organization of Patriots founded to protest the Stamp Act.
Boston Tea Party: Colonists (poorly) dressed as American Indians and threw barrels of tea into the harbor to protest tea prices. This action led to the Coercive Acts.
First Continental Congress: Delegates from of the colonies met to form a response to the Coercive Acts.
Boston Massacre (): Tensions in Boston culminated in a mob of colonists attacking British soldiers. Five colonists were killed when soldiers fired into the crowd.
The Declaration of Independence ()
The Second Continental Congress decided the colonies should become independent. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, detailing grievances against King George III.
Important Ideals from the Enlightenment:
Natural Rights: ‐All Men are Created Equal.‐ Humans are born with unalienable rights that cannot be taken away: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This idea came from John Locke.
Social Contract: People owe loyalty only to a government that acts in their best interests. This idea originated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Purpose of Government: The main job of the government is to protect natural rights. If it fails, the people have the right to ‐alter or abolish‐ it and create a new one.
Consent of the Governed: The government derives its power from the people; they must give their permission (consent) to be governed.
Unit 3: Building a Nation
The Articles of Confederation
The first centralized government was created under the Articles of Confederation. Leaders feared giving the government too much power due to the tyranny experienced under King George III.
Characteristics:
Only one branch: Congress (Legislature). There was no executive branch (King or President) to enforce laws.
Congress had no power to collect taxes, leaving the government with no money.
States held most of the power and functioned like independent nations; Congress lacked the authority to compel states to act.
Shay’s Rebellion (): Daniel Shay led a rebellion of farmers in Western Massachusetts against state taxes. The federal government was too weak to help, requiring private and state militias to stop the rebellion. This proved the Articles of Confederation were too weak and needed reform.
Positive Accomplishment: The Northwest Ordinance. This law outlined the process for adding new states and forbade slavery in the Northwest Territory.
The Constitutional Convention ()
Leaders met in Philadelphia to form a stronger central government under the Constitution. The authors are known as the Framers.
Great Compromise: Resolved a debate over representation. Large states (like Virginia) wanted proportionate representation (based on population), while small states (like New Jersey) wanted equal representation. The result was a bicameral legislature:
House of Representatives (proportionate).
Senate (equal).
Three-Fifths Compromise: Resolved a dispute between Northern and Southern states on how to count enslaved people for representation. It was agreed that or of the enslaved population would count toward the state population.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists: Federalists wanted a strong central government. Anti-Federalists wanted a weaker one and demanded a Bill of Rights be added to protect citizens from government abuse. Both sides succeeded: the Constitution created a stronger government, and the Bill of Rights was added.
Constitutional Ideals
Limited Government: The government should not have excessive power.
Separation of Powers: Three coequal branches exist: executive, legislative, and judicial.
Checks and Balances: Each branch limits the power of others (e.g., Presidential veto, Congressional confirmation of appointments, Judicial review).
Flexibility: The Constitution is adaptable through the ‐elastic clause‐ (allowing Congress to pass necessary laws) and amendments.
Federalism: Power is shared between state governments and the federal government.
Early Presidencies and the Unwritten Constitution
George Washington (): Known for Isolationism (avoiding European affairs to focus on domestic issues) and the Two-Term precedent (stepping down after years). This precedent lasted until with Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Hamilton vs. Jefferson: Disagreements between Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State) and Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury) led to the first political parties:
Strict Constructionist: Jefferson believed the Constitution should be followed exactly as written.
Loose Constructionist: Hamilton believed the Constitution should be flexible and supported a stronger federal government. He supported the National Bank, which Jefferson opposed.
The Unwritten Constitution: Practices followed by tradition though not written in the Constitution:
The two-term limit (before the amendment).
The existence of two main political parties.
The President’s Cabinet (committee of advisors).
Judicial Review: Established by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (), giving the Supreme Court the right to declare laws unconstitutional.
Lobbying: The right of groups to influence members of Congress.
Alien and Sedition Acts: Passed during John Adams’ presidency (-) by Federalists to intimidate political opponents and fight enemy spies.
XYZ Affair: French diplomats demanded a million bribe to stop the impressment of American ships.
Unit 4: Westward Expansion
Territorial Growth and Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny: The belief that God gave Americans the right to expand to the Pacific Ocean, even at the expense of others.
Louisiana Purchase (): Thomas Jefferson purchased the entire Louisiana Territory from Napoleon for access to the Mississippi River and New Orleans. It doubled the size of the U.S. Though a strict constructionist, Jefferson faced a dilemma as the Constitution did not explicitly allow land purchases.
Texas Annexation (): Americans in Texas (formerly Tejas) declared independence from Mexico partly because Mexico had abolished slavery in . President John Tyler annexed Texas despite fears of war with Mexico.
Mexican Cession (): Following the Mexican-American War (-), Mexico ceded over one-third of its territory, including modern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah.
Infrastructure and Population Movements
Erie Canal (s): Connected New York City to the Great Lakes via the Hudson River and Lake Erie.
Indian Removal Act: President Andrew Jackson enforced the removal of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Creek, Choctaw, and Seminole) after gold was found on Cherokee land. Thousands died on the ‐Trail of Tears.‐
Homestead Act (): Granted settlers acres of land west of the Mississippi if they lived on it for years and farmed part of it.
Transcontinental Railroad (): Completed by the Union Pacific and Eastern Pacific railroads using Chinese and Irish immigrant labor.
California Gold Rush (): Discovery of gold led to a massive population increase; California became a state in .
Unit 5: Sectionalism, Civil War, & Reconstruction
Sectional Conflicts and Compromises
Missouri Compromise (): Missouri was admitted as a slave state and Maine as a free state to maintain balance in the Senate. A line was drawn at ; states north would be free, states south would be slave.
Compromise of :
California admitted as a free state.
Slave trade (not slavery) abolished in Washington D.C.
A stricter Fugitive Slave Act required citizens to assist in returning escaped slaves.
Popular Sovereignty: White citizens of Utah and New Mexico would vote to decide on slavery.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (): Allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to use popular sovereignty. This led to ‐Bleeding Kansas,‐ where pro-slavery ‐border ruffians‐ cast illegal votes. President Franklin Pierce recognized the fraudulent pro-slavery government, damaging his legacy.
The Abolitionist Movement and Slave Resistance
William Lloyd Garrison: Founded The Liberator (); advocated for immediate emancipation.
Frederick Douglass: Former slave, incredible public speaker, and author of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.
Sojourner Truth: Famous for the ‐Ain’t I a Woman?‐ speech.
Harriet Beecher Stowe: Author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which horrified Northerners with descriptions of plantation life.
John Brown: Fought in Bleeding Kansas; executed after raiding the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, to start a slave rebellion. He was a catalyst for the Civil War.
Nat Turner’s Rebellion (): Deadliest slave revolt for white people; slaves and free blacks killed - white people in Virginia.
Dred Scott v. Sanford (): The Supreme Court ruled that enslaved people were not citizens, could not sue, and that enslavers’ property rights could not be violated. This effectively ruled that slavery was legal everywhere.
The Civil War (-)
Abraham Lincoln (): Elected for the Republican Party. Southerners seceded to protect slavery, forming the Confederate States of America.
Lincoln believed secession was unconstitutional. The war began when Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter.
Emancipation Proclamation (): Executive order freeing slaves in Confederate states. It changed the goal of the war from preserving the Union to abolishing slavery.
Battle of Gettysburg: The turning point of the war.
Gettysburg Address: Lincoln redefined the war as a fight for both Union and abolition. It prevented Great Britain and France (who had already abolished slavery) from supporting the South.
Surrender (): Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April . Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth five days later.
Reconstruction (-)
Amendments:
th Amendment: Abolished slavery.
th Amendment: Established birthright citizenship and provided equal protection under the law.
th Amendment: Protected voting rights for African American men.
Presidential Reconstruction: Andrew Johnson allowed white Democrats to hold power, leading to black codes.
Radical Reconstruction: Radical Republicans took over in , established military occupation of the South, and ratified the th and th amendments.
End of Reconstruction: The KKK (formed ) and declining Northern support led to the Compromise of (the Corrupt Bargain). Rutherford B. Hayes became president, and federal troops were removed.
Post-Reconstruction: Southern states passed Jim Crow laws (segregation), literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses (allowing poor/illiterate whites to vote if their grandfathers could before ).
Plessy v. Ferguson (): Supreme Court upheld segregation through the ‐separate but equal‐ doctrine.
Unit 6: Industrialization
Causes of Industrialization
Rapidly increasing population supported by agricultural advances.
Transportation advances: Canals (s), railroads (s-s), and automobiles ().
Communication advances: Telegraph (s) and telephone ().
Energy: Oil and electricity.
Corporations: Rise of companies with vast capital.
Government policy: Open immigration (though the Chinese Exclusion Act of restricted Chinese immigration).
Laissez-Faire Capitalism and Business Practices
Laissez-Faire: The idea that the government should not interfere with the economy.
This led to monopolies and trusts. Leaders like John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil) and Andrew Carnegie (Carnegie Steel) were called ‐robber barons.‐
Working conditions were dangerous, involved child labor, and provided low wages.
Social Darwinism: ‐Survival of the fittest‐ was used to justify large economic inequalities and prejudice against immigrants.
Labor Unions and Conflict
Railroad Strike of : First multi-state strike; caused by wage cuts.
Haymarket Riot (): Pro--hour workday protest in Chicago that turned violent after a bomb killed several people.
Homestead Strike: Pennsylvania steel worker lockout; broken by the National Guard.
Pullman Strike: Rail car workers strike supported by Eugene Debs. President Grover Cleveland broke the strike to ensure the movement of U.S. Mail.
Populist Party (s): Formed to protect farmers from railroad monopolies and corrupt banks.
Nativism: Prejudice against ‐new‐ immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe.
Unit 7: The Progressive Era
Social and Government Reforms
Consumer Protection: Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act passed after muckraker Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle.
Child Labor: Social reformer Jacob Riis published How the Other Half Lives. Most states eventually outlawed child labor.
Women’s Suffrage: Protests by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and Susan B. Anthony led to the th Amendment in .
Working Conditions: The Triangle Shirtwaist fire and Riis’ photos led to minimum wage and safety laws.
Living Conditions: Jane Addams opened the first ‐settlement house‐; building safety laws were passed.
Expanding Democracy: The th Amendment (direct election of Senators), referendum, recall, and secret ballot were introduced.
Business Corruption: Teddy Roosevelt (the ‐trust buster‐) supported the Clayton Antitrust Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, and Federal Reserve Act.
Conservation: Creation of the National Parks system.
Unit 8: American Imperialism and World War I
Imperialism and Foreign Policy
Monroe Doctrine (): Told Europe to stay out of the Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt Corollary: Asserted the U.S. right to be the ‐policeman‐ of the Western Hemisphere.
Spanish-American War (): Triggered by the explosion of the U.S.S. Maine. Yellow journalists exaggerated Spanish injustices. The U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and control of Cuba.
Panama Canal: Man-made waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific through Panama.
World War I (-)
The U.S. shifted from neutrality to involvement due to British propaganda, German Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (sinking of the Lusitania with Americans), and the Zimmermann Telegram (German offer of alliance to Mexico).
Civil Liberties: The Espionage Act and Sedition Act restricted rights. In Schenck v. United States (), the Supreme Court established the ‐clear and present danger‐ doctrine.
Post-War: President Wilson proposed the Points and the League of Nations. The Senate rejected the League of Nations.
Unit 9: The Roaring 20s
Modern vs. Traditional Conflict
Culture: Jazz music, flappers, and the Scopes Monkey Trial (battle between religious creationism and scientific evolution).
Prohibition: The th Amendment banned liquor, leading to organized crime.
Economy: Boom fueled by Henry Ford’s assembly line and increased consumerism.
Nativism and Social Movements
Second KKK: Focused on anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant sentiment across the U.S.
Sacco and Vanzetti: Two Italian immigrants executed for murder with no direct evidence, likely due to anti-Italian sentiment.
First Red Scare: Fear of communists/socialists after the Russian Revolution. The FBI conducted the Palmer Raids.
Immigration Acts of and : Established strict numerical quotas.
Harlem Renaissance: Movement of African American arts/culture in Manhattan (Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Duke Ellington).
Great Migration: Millions of African Americans moved from the Jim Crow South to the North and West for factory jobs.
Unit 10: The Great Depression
Causes and Early Response
Overproduction of consumer goods and farm crops.
Too much credit and Stock Market speculation (‐buying on margin‐).
Herbert Hoover: Followed laissez-faire capitalism; residents built ‐Hoovervilles.‐
Dust Bowl: Drought and overfarming in the Great Plains led farmers to move to California.
Bonus March: World War I veterans marched on Washington for their promised bonuses; they were forcibly removed by troops.
The New Deal
Franklin Delano Roosevelt () launched Relief, Recovery, and Reform.
Programs: WPA (Works Progress Administration), CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps), FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation), SSI (Social Security Insurance).
The U.S. became a modern welfare state. The Great Depression finally ended with entry into WWII in .
Court-packing scheme: FDR’s failed attempt to increase Supreme Court Justices from to .
Unit 11: World War II
Domestic and Foreign Involvement
Neutrality Acts: Passed in the s to keep the U.S. out of war.
Support for Allies: Cash and Carry () and the Lend-Lease Act (). Roosevelt called the U.S. the ‐arsenal of democracy.‐
Pearl Harbor: December , . The U.S. joined the Allies.
Strategy: D-Day (Normandy invasion) in Europe; Island Hopping in the Pacific.
Homefront: Manhattan Project (atomic bomb), Japanese-American internment (upheld in Korematsu v. United States), Rosie the Riveter, rationing, and War Bonds.
Double V Campaign: African American fight for victory against fascism abroad and racism at home.
Aftermath
Atomic Bombs: ‐Little Boy‐ on Hiroshima (August , ) and ‐Fat Man‐ on Nagasaki (August , ).
Nuremberg Trials: Prosecution of Nazi war criminals.
United Nations (U.N.): Global peacemaking organization created to prevent wars.
G.I. Bill: Provided veterans with education and housing money, though Black veterans faced significant discrimination.
Unit 12: The Cold War
Containment and Superpower Conflict
The U.S. (capitalist) vs. U.S.S.R. (communist). Fought via proxy wars.
Marshall Plan: billion (over billion in dollars) to rebuild Europe.
Truman Doctrine: Military assistance for nations threatened by authoritarianism.
Berlin Airlift (): Operation Vittles supplied West Berlin.
Korean War (-): Stalemate between North and South.
Bay of Pigs (): Failed CIA invasion of Cuba.
Cuban Missile Crisis (): Confrontation over nuclear missiles; closest the world came to nuclear war.
Vietnam War (-): Resulted in a communist victory and reunification.
Races: Arms race (nuclear weapons) and Space race (Sputnik in , Apollo on the moon in ).
Domestic Fear and Prosperity
Second Red Scare: Led by Senator Joe McCarthy. House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) targeted the ‐Hollywood Ten.‐
Nuclear Fear: Bombshelters and ‐duck-and-cover‐ drills.
Suburbs: Prosperity for white middle class; construction of Levittown and the U.S. Interstate System.
Unit 13: The Civil Rights Movement
Strategies and Victories
Brown v. Board of Education (): Overturned Plessy, making school segregation illegal. Protected by federal troops at Little Rock Central High School ().
Martin Luther King Jr.: Led through civil disobedience and nonviolence (Montgomery Bus Boycott, Freedom Riders, March on Washington in ).
Legislation:
Civil Rights Act of : Banned segregation and employment discrimination.
Voting Rights Act of : Banned literacy tests.
th Amendment: Banned poll taxes.
Black Power: Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party advocated for more forceful demands for equality.
Affirmative Action: Legal programs to provide opportunities for minorities to make up for past inequality.
Unit 14: The 1960s
The Great Society and Social Change
Lyndon Johnson: Great Society programs (Head Start, Medicaid, Medicare).
Feminism: National Organization for Women (NOW), Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), Roe v. Wade ().
Labor: Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers union for Mexican-American farm workers.
SCOTUS Civil Liberties: Mapp v. Ohio (evidence gathering), Engel v. Vitale (no school prayer), Gideon v. Wainwright (right to a lawyer), Miranda v. Arizona (warning of rights), Tinker v. Des Moines (student free speech).
Vietnam’s Domestic Impact
Domino Theory logic led to over American deaths.
th Amendment: Lowered voting age to .
War Powers Act of : Limited Presidential ability to escalate military action.
New York Times v. United States (): Allowed publishing of the Pentagon Papers.
Unit 15: The U.S. Since 1970
International and Domestic Issues
Detente: Nixon visiting China and signing SALT treaty to limit nuclear weapons.
Middle East: Camp David Accords (), Oslo Accords (), Abraham Accords ().
Modern Middle East: October Hamas attack, alleged genocide in Gaza, and settler occupation in the West Bank.
Cold War End: Berlin Wall fell in . Reagan credited for defeating U.S.S.R. with programs like ‐Star Wars.‐
Persian Gulf War (): Bush Sr. sent troops to defeat Iraq after it invaded Kuwait.
Trade: NAFTA () replaced by USMCA ().
War on Terror: led to wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and the creation of the PATRIOT ACT/DHS. Suspected terrorists kept in Guantanamo Bay (currently used as of for migrant detention).
Watergate: Nixon resigned after covering up a burglary at the Democratic National Committee. Led to the Federal Election Campaign Act and Freedom of Information Act.
Economy: Stagflation and Reaganomics (Supply-side tax cuts for the rich).
Election of : George W. Bush won the Electoral College after a Florida recount was stopped by the Supreme Court, despite Al Gore winning the popular vote.