International Relations: World War I to Early Cold War

International Relations: World War I to Early Cold War

Origins of the Discipline

• First Chair: Established in 1918 at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth.

  • Grounded in the aftermath of World War I, aiming to foster peace and international understanding.

  • Named the Woodrow Wilson Professor of International Politics, reflecting the influence of Wilsonian idealism.

  • Funded by a Welsh pacifist businessman, emphasizing the desire for peaceful international relations.

    • Founded in memory of fallen students, highlighting the human cost of war.

    • Focused on problems related to the League of Nations and understanding other civilizations, promoting international cooperation.

• Expansion: Other universities like Oxford, London, and Edinburgh followed.

  • Sponsored by the League of Nations and its International Studies Conference in the 1930s, supporting academic research in international affairs.

• American Programs: Significant expansion after World War II, building on interwar programs at the University of Chicago.

  • Driven by the evolving Cold War, necessitating a deeper understanding of global power dynamics and security issues.

Shift in Perspective

• Initial Focus: Liberal critique of great power diplomacy after World War I.

  • Advocating for international cooperation and the establishment of institutions to prevent future conflicts.

• Shift: Legitimization of power politics, especially American hegemony, after World War II.

  • Recognizing the role of power in international relations, particularly the influence of dominant states.

• Locus of Power: Shift from Great Britain to the United States, mirroring global hegemonic changes.

  • Reflecting the decline of British power and the rise of the United States as a global superpower.

• Focus: From preventing war (1918-1939) to managing the Cold War.

  • Adapting to the new geopolitical landscape shaped by the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.

• Approach: Interdisciplinary, but weighted towards:

  • History and international law (British universities).

    • Providing a foundation for understanding the historical context and legal framework of international relations.

  • Government and political science (American universities).

    • Emphasizing the political dynamics and institutional structures that shape international behavior.

• Quincy Wright (1955): International relations was still "a discipline in the process of formation."

  • Highlighting the ongoing development and evolution of the field.

Core Project of International Relations

• Bringing order out of anarchy through international institutions.

  • Addressing the absence of a central authority in the international system by promoting cooperation and establishing rules and norms.

• Challenging a system where states pursue interests in a power game of balancing alliances and hegemonic power grabs.

  • Questioning the traditional focus on power politics and advocating for alternative approaches to international relations.

• The nation-state was considered a universal given, influenced by 19th-century trends.

  • Reflecting the dominance of the nation-state as the primary actor in international affairs.

• Post-World War I: Aim to avoid conflict among nation-states.

  • Learning from the devastating consequences of the war and seeking to prevent its recurrence.

• Overlaid by Woodrow Wilson's ideas and the League of Nations' focus on cooperation and the common good.

  • Emphasizing the importance of international cooperation and shared values in promoting peace and stability.

Dominance of the Nation State

• Seemingly proven by the results of World War I.

  • Reinforcing the idea of the nation-state as the fundamental unit of international politics.

• End of Empires: Austro-Hungarian Empire, territorial reduction of the Russian Empire.

  • Leading to the emergence of new nation-states and redrawing the map of Europe.

• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918): Lenin surrendered territories like Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and parts of Finland to Germany.

  • These areas became independent nations.

• Poland: Re-emerged on the map of Europe.

  • Restoring Polish sovereignty after centuries of foreign rule.

• Austria-Hungary: Disintegrated into Austria, Hungary, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

  • Creating new states based on national identities.

• Ottoman Empire: Reduced to Turkey by 1923, losing territories in the Near East, Middle East, and Africa.

  • Marking the end of Ottoman rule and the emergence of new states in the Middle East and North Africa.

Liberal Idealist Model

• Dominance in the interwar period.

  • Shaping the discourse and practice of international relations.

• Belief in peaceful ways to resolve differences without force.

  • Promoting diplomacy, negotiation, and international law as alternatives to war.

• Importance of international law and institutions (e.g., League of Nations).

  • Establishing a framework for cooperation and conflict resolution among states.

• States can resolve differences through negotiation and respect for international law.

  • Emphasizing the role of diplomacy and legal norms in maintaining peace and order.

• History is crucial for both liberal idealists and realists in understanding the present and future.

  • Providing insights into the recurring patterns and dynamics of international relations.

• Liberal idealists believed the lessons of World War I had been learned, making future wars illogical.

  • Underestimating the persistence of power politics and the potential for conflict.

• The failures of diplomatic concessions by the League of Nations, Britain, and France (appeasement) led to the evolution of realist school.

  • Demonstrating the limits of diplomacy and the importance of military strength in deterring aggression.

• Realists argue nations won't set aside their own benefit for the common good.

  • Emphasizing the pursuit of national interests as a primary driver of state behavior.

• Differing interpretations of historical examples support various IR theories.

  • Illustrating the complexity of international relations and the diversity of theoretical perspectives.

Divergence in Approaches (Britain vs. US)

• Britain: Reliance on history, international law, and European diplomatic history.

  • Emphasizing the importance of historical context and legal norms in understanding international relations.

• United States: Emphasis on political science approaches.

  • Focusing on the political dynamics and institutional structures that shape international behavior.

• British IR: Diversified theories (British version of liberal idealism, British School of International Relations).

  • Promoting a broader range of perspectives and approaches to the study of international relations.

• US IR: Attempt to reduce variables, leading to conflict between international relations and history by the 1960s and 70s.

  • Prioritizing parsimony and generalizability over historical nuance and complexity.

• Gordon Craig: Advocated for injecting more history into IR scholarship.

  • Arguing for a more contextualized and historically informed understanding of international relations.

• By the 1970s, neorealism disavowed the necessity of history.

  • Reinforcing the emphasis on abstract theory and the neglect of historical analysis.

IR as a Discipline in Formation

• Even in 1955, IR was still evolving.

  • Highlighting the ongoing development and transformation of the field.

• Initial schools of IR theory viewed the nation-state as a given.

  • Accepting the nation-state as the primary actor without questioning its origins or limitations.

• World War I discredited balance of power diplomacy.

  • Challenging the traditional reliance on power politics as a means of maintaining stability.

• New emphasis on international law and institutions like the League of Nations, as advocated by Wilson.

  • Promoting cooperation and collective security as alternatives to power politics.

Pioneering IR Scholars

• Many were lawyers interested in international law and courts of arbitration.

  • Emphasizing the role of legal norms and institutions in resolving international disputes.

• Others were diplomats or foreign office officials (e.g., E.H. Carr, Sir Charles Webster).

  • Bringing practical experience and insights to the study of international relations.

• Charles Webster: Drew up a memorandum, later a book, on the Vienna Conference of 1815.

  • Analyzing the historical context and consequences of great power diplomacy.

  • Endorsed the League of Nations and the United Nations.

• United Nations vs. League of Nations:

  • UN had a Security Council of sovereign great powers, unlike the League's collective security approach.

    • Acknowledging the importance of great power cooperation in maintaining international peace and security.

Emerging IR Theory (1940s-1950s)

• Influenced by a realist approach, especially in the US.

  • Emphasizing the role of power and self-interest in international relations.

• Unitary sovereign state as the main actor in an anarchic international system.

  • Reinforcing the focus on the nation-state as the primary actor and the absence of a central authority in the international system.

Interwar Foundation Years

• Popular reaction against the slaughter of World War I and the failure of balance of power diplomacy.

  • Motivating the search for alternative approaches to international relations.

• The discipline of IR aimed to understand what went wrong and prevent future wars.

  • Seeking to learn from the mistakes of the past and promote a more peaceful future.

• Closely related to international peace movements and institutions of international security and justice (e.g., League of Nations, International Court of Justice).

  • Supporting the establishment of international organizations and legal mechanisms to prevent and resolve conflicts.

• Critique: World War I resulted from secret treaties engineered by an undemocratic foreign service.

  • Highlighting the dangers of secrecy and the importance of democratic accountability in foreign policy.

  • Reform: More democratic and open processes (Wilson's "open covenants openly arrived at").

• Emphasis on international jurisprudence, particularly the work of Hugo Grotius.

  • Drawing on legal principles and norms to promote order and justice in international relations.

• Theoretical embrace of liberal idealism.

  • Promoting cooperation, international law, and institutions as means of achieving peace and prosperity.

Dominance of Liberal Idealism (1920s-early 1930s)

• Focus on the immorality of war, interdependence of states, and need for institutions beyond state sovereignty.

  • Challenging the traditional acceptance of war as a legitimate instrument of state policy.

• Rise of fascism and perceived failures of Versailles and the League led to a realist reaction.

  • Questioning the assumptions of liberal idealism and emphasizing the role of power in international relations.

• Realists argued international law and human rights were inadequate to control an anarchic sovereign state system where power prevailed.

Competing Norms: Liberal Idealism vs. Realism

• Liberal Idealism: States cooperate, guided by international law and human rights, through institutions like the League of Nations for collective benefit.

  • Emphasizing the potential for cooperation and the importance of shared values in international relations.

• Realism: States prioritize self-interest, international affairs is a power game, states use force when necessary.

  • Recognizing the persistent role of power and self-interest in shaping state behavior.

• Liberal idealists sought to channel conflict away from war into legal processes, like the state's monopoly of violence.

  • Promoting the rule of law and the peaceful resolution of disputes.

• Ideas traced back to the birth of international law in the 17th century and liberal economic views on free trade.

  • Drawing on historical and intellectual traditions to support their arguments.

• Anglo-American tradition of liberal internationalism weakened by the failures of the 1930s.

Perceptions of Liberal Idealism

• Interwar Period: Associated with naive pacifism.

  • Criticizing the perceived lack of realism and the failure to recognize the persistent role of power in international relations.

• Post-World War II: Perceived as Wilsonian idealism, imposing American standards of democracy and human rights.

  • Questioning the universality of liberal values and the potential for cultural imperialism.

• Post-World War II saw a fusion of liberal idealism and realist models in the United Nations.

Realist Arguments

• International politics inevitably about power.

  • Emphasizing the competition for resources and influence among states.

• History shows an anarchic system of sovereign states with a natural tendency to reach equilibrium through a balance of power.

  • Recognizing the persistent role of power and the recurring patterns of state behavior.

• Hardheaded and pessimistic view of human nature.

  • Suggesting that human beings are inherently selfish and prone to conflict.

• E.H. Carr attacked utopianism (liberal idealism) and the failure of collective security, preferring great power politics.

  • Questioning the assumptions of liberal idealism and emphasizing the importance of military strength in deterring aggression.

• Realists argued that the liberal idealists' interpretation of state behavior was flawed.

Reinhold Niebuhr

• Reinhold Niebuhr (1932), Moral Man and Immoral Society.

• Doubted the liberal international lawyer's idea of a progress through international institutions.

• Drew a sharp distinction between the moral behavior of individuals and that of social groups like nations.

• Argued that among nations, conflict is inevitable, and power must be challenged by power.

• The league's moral persuasion was irrelevant and impotent.
  

  *Appeasement policies of the 1930s, the British and the French effectively allowing Japan to keep Manchuria, allowing Italy to keep Ethiopia, allowing Hitler to take the Rhineland, allowing Hitler to annex Austria, doing nothing when Japan invaded the rest of China, doing nothing when Mussolini invaded Albania. These efforts at persuading powers to effectively give back what they'd taken, for example, simply did not work. That expressions of military force, expressions of of military power or political power had to be met with power, challenged with equal power to effectively show an aggressor that there would be some cost for the aggression.

Post-World War II and the United Nations

• Return of war discredited some liberal idealist notions.

• The United Nations was a hybrid of the League's ideals and great power control.

• Hope for the Security Council to channel conflict was overwhelmed by the Cold War.

• Security Council couldn't do much because the veto by the Soviets and the United States, resulting in stalemate.

The Cold War

• The division with the British, the French, the Americans, led to divided security accounts.

• Thomas Smith: Quote, a matrix event, unquote, which structured historical meaning for a generation.

• For realist theory: Shift from balance as a competitive equilibrium in a multipolar system to balance as a direct opposition in a bipolar system.

• Hans Morgenthau:

  • Became the founding father of an American school of IR realism.

  • Shift from addressing the problem of war to preventing American isolationism.

  • Drew on diplomatic history, especially the era of Metternich.

  • His beliefs for the need for a crusade against fascism colors his view of the need for American leadership against an expansion of Soviet Union.

Hans Morgenthau's Realism

• Lived 1904 to 1980.

• Conceived of politics in terms of power and interest.

• He was skeptical of international idealist who he claimed were historically naive.

• Sought history relevant to America's role as a global power.

• Politics Among Nations (1948):

  • One of the founding texts of IR in the US.

  • International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power.

  • Power: Man's control over the minds and actions of other men.

  • Armed strength as a threat or potentiality is the most important material factor making for the political power of a nation.

  • Sovereignty: supreme authority within its borders.

  • Struggle for Power is universal in time and space.

  • No rules of international law are binding, unquote, upon the sovereign state without its consent.
    

    *Claims international politics is actually governed by the laws of human nature, chief among them the lust for power.
    

    *Balance of power as a universal phenomenon, always tending towards the maintenance of stability and the overall framework for political order.

Criticisms of Morgenthau

• Assumption of rational choice in a static system.

• Selection bias, anecdotalism, ahistoricism, precision beyond what the incomplete evidence would allow.

• Incorporates Von Rheinke's event-centered idea of history.

• Neglects domestic policy.

• Emulates the science of classical economics, rational choice within an anarchic system, seeing the state system as an analog to Western capitalism.

• In the Cold War: Realism helped draw the US into world affairs, countering isolationism.

Foundational Liberal Idealist Texts

Francesco de Vitoria, Alberico Gentile, Grotius.

Francesco de Vitoria, (roughly 1492-1546) Influenced by humanists in Paris and the ideas of Thomas Aquinas, he tried to find justification for the Spanish conquest of The Americas in the concept of natural law rather than any kind of special authority that might have been granted by the pope, etcetera.

Alberico Gentile, (1552-1608), Italian jurist and ProtestantDe Jorbeli in (1589) in applying the concepts of domestic civil law to international cases.

Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)

De Jure Beliac Pachis (1625) Written in the context of Holland's long war with Spain, and the Thirty Years' War in Germany, an attempt to argue for the limitation of war. War only had legitimate basis if resorted to a sufficient cause.

The search for a moral orded based in reason Immanuel Kant's

Petual Peace.

Foundational realist Texts

Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes.

Thucydides (April-March BCE), history of the Peloponnesian War.

Machiavelli (1469-1527). urges the ruler to devote himself to the art of war as an instrument in getting and keeping power.

concerned with ends rather than the means based on experience rather than principle.

Hobbes (1588-1679