The Protestant Reformation, Absolutism and Constitutionalism

The Protestant Reformation

• Inspired by Christian humanists like Erasmus, who critiqued the Catholic Church's corruption and advocated for reform.
• Key figures include Martin Luther, whose ideas included:
  • Sola Scriptura: The belief that the Bible is the ultimate authority.
  • Salvation by faith alone: Salvation is a gift from God's grace and cannot be earned.
• The Reformation took place during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Critiques of the Catholic Church

• Corruption: Church leaders were perceived to be more interested in wealth and power than serving God.
  • Indulgences: The sale of indulgences, which were said to reduce time spent in purgatory, was a major point of contention.
  • Simony: The practice of buying church offices, allowing unqualified individuals to gain power.
• Clerical celibacy: Priests were required to remain celibate, which was seen as unnatural and led to abuses, including sexual misconduct and illegitimate children.
• Simony: Church offices were sold to the highest bidder, resulting in unqualified and corrupt individuals holding positions of power.
• Use of Latin: Church services were conducted in Latin, making it difficult for ordinary people to understand, leading to alienation.

Calvinism vs. Lutheranism

Overlapping Periods: Reformation and Commercial Revolution

• The Commercial Revolution and the Reformation overlapped, with increased trade significantly impacting the religious landscape of Europe.
• The rise of the merchant class challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, criticizing practices like the sale of indulgences.
• The printing press facilitated the rapid spread of Reformation ideas.
• Increased literacy and wealth accumulation contributed to calls for reform.

Rise of Nation-States and Political Implications

• The Reformation contributed to the rise of nation-states as dominant political entities in Europe, leading to the decline of feudalism and the rise of centralized monarchies.
• Religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants had significant political implications.
• The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648): Resulted in millions of deaths and was ended by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
• The rise of absolutism, with monarchs claiming absolute power to maintain order during religious and political turmoil.
• European powers began establishing colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia during this period.
• The Enlightenment challenged the traditional political and social order.

Absolutism and Constitutionalism (1648-1815)

• The era of state-building in Europe.
• The concept of sovereignty underwent significant changes.

Major Levels of Sovereignty

• Dynastic sovereignty: Power of monarchs or ruling families; most prevalent form in the early modern period.
  • Monarchs had absolute power and were considered above the law.
  • They could make laws, levy taxes, and wage wars.
• Territorial sovereignty: Power of the state over its territory.
• Popular sovereignty: Power of the people.
  • Based on the belief that the people were the ultimate source of power.
  • The people had the right to participate in government, and the government's legitimacy came from the consent of the governed.

Language Minority Groups

• The Scottish Highlands: Gaelic-speaking population resisted English attempts to impose their language and culture.
• Catalonia: A region in Spain with a distinct language and culture suppressed by the Spanish government.
  • The Catalonian people have fought for greater autonomy and recognition of their unique identity.
• Ireland: The Irish language was suppressed by the English government during British rule.
  • The Irish people fought for independence and the recognition of their language and culture.

Absolutist Rulers and New Monarchs

New Monarchs

• Set the stage for later absolute monarchies by exercising more influence on the religious life of their subjects.
• Ferdinand and Isabella:
  • Made Catholicism the national religion of Spain.
  • Limited the power of the nobility and clergy to centralize power.
  • Completed the Spanish Reconquista.
    • The Spanish Reconquista was when Christian kingdoms in Spain spent hundreds of years fighting to take their land back from Muslim rulers, who had taken over in 711. It lasted until 1492, when the last Muslim city, Granada, was conquered.
  • Financed war through a crusade tax.
  • Proclaimed all subjects would be Catholic and expelled Muslims and Jews if they refused to convert.
  • Supported the Spanish Inquisition to ensure converts did not lapse into heresy.
    • Heresy is when someone goes against the official beliefs of the Church.
    • Examples: Joan of Arc (100 Years' War) and Galileo Galilei (heliocentrism).

Absolute Monarchs

• Louis XIV of France:
  • "L’état c’est moi" - "I am the state."
  • Known as the Sun King, he based his authority on the concept that kings were God's rulers on Earth.
  • Justified his claim to supreme power by divine right and considered himself above the law.
  • Moved the capital to Versailles and built the Castle of Versailles to control the nobles' lives.
  • Made political and social privileges dependent on his will.
  • Ensured the military answered directly to the king.
  • Formed national policies on war, taxation, law, and religion (religious uniformity under the Catholic religion).
  • Persecuted Protestants (Huguenots) and revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685, imposing the Edict of Fountain Bleu.
  • Funded extravagant expenditures like Versailles through mercantilist policies, helped by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, his finance minister.
• Peter the Great of Russia:
  • Popularized absolutism and westernized Russia.
  • Built a strong army using European weapons, training, and tactics.
  • Made nobles wear European-style clothes and forced men to shave their beards (beard tax).
  • Improved education with schools for math, science, and navigation.
  • Traveled to Europe on the "Grand Embassy" to learn about European technology and customs.
• Charles I of England:
  • His absolute reign led to conflict with Parliament, leading to the Glorious Revolution, his beheading, and the signed Bill of Rights.
  • Believed in the divine right of kings, implemented taxes without Parliament's approval, and ruled without Parliament for over a decade, sparking the English Civil War.
• James I of England:
  • Father of Charles I, King of England and Scotland.
  • Believed in the divine right of kings and attempted to rule as an absolute monarch.
  • Clashed with Parliament and wanted religious uniformity (everyone belonging to the Church of England/Anglican Church).
• James II of England:
  • An openly Catholic king who believed in absolutism and the divine right of kings.
  • People feared he would bring Catholicism back, leading to the Glorious Revolution.
• Austrian Habsburgs (Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III):
  • Sought to restore Catholicism in Bohemia.
  • Increased monarchical powers by building large armies, increasing taxes, and suppressing representative institutions.
  • Made deals with nobles to gain political authority.
• Frederick William I of Prussia:
  • Known for his military reforms; transformed Prussia into a military state.
  • Increased monarchical powers through army building, taxation, and suppressing representative institutions; made deals with nobles.
• Henry IV of France (Henry of Navarre):
  • The first Bourbon king.
  • Ended the Wars of Religion by issuing the Edict of Nantes.
  • Reformed the tax system, reduced the power of the nobility, and promoted economic growth.

Enlightened Absolutists

• Napoleon Bonaparte: Centralized absolute power and controlled the military.
  • Introduced the Napoleonic Code in 1804, guaranteeing legal equality for all men, protecting property rights, and permitting freedom of religion.
  • Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Montesquieu.
  • Promoted religious tolerance via the Concordat of 1801.
  • Improved education and modernized the economy.
  • Censored the press, restricted political opposition, and created a police state.
  • Crowned himself emperor in 1804.
• Frederick the Great of Prussia (Frederick II):
  • Expanded religious toleration, allowed non-noblemen to fill government roles, and was considered the first "servant of the state."
• Joseph II of Austria:
  • Implemented reforms known as Josephinism, which aimed to modernize and centralize the government.
  • Abolished serfdom, established religious toleration, and reformed the legal system.
• Catherine the Great of Russia:
  • Significantly expanded Russian territory and was a champion of the arts and Enlightenment ideals.
  • Implemented reforms known as the Nakaz.
• Maria Theresa of Austria:
  • Known for her reforms in education, agriculture, and the military.
  • Strengthened the power of the central government and modernized the economy.
    Frederick William II of Prussia is also listed under Enlightened Despots