Use "an" before singular countable nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u), and "a" before words beginning with the other letters of the alphabet.
Example: My friend is sharing a room with an Italian girl.
Note:
"a university" is used because it begins with a /j/ sound.
"an hour" is used because the h is silent.
Use "a" (or "an") in expressions such as:
three times a week
(a) quarter of an hour
Use either "one" or "a" with:
hundred
thousand
million
Use "one" instead of "a" to emphasise the number.
Example: There are one hundred centimetres in a metre. (or a hundred centimetres)
Example: I've got two brothers and one sister. (or and a sister)
Use "one" (not "a" or "an") to emphasise talking about only one thing or person and not two or more.
Example: I invited three friends, but only one of them came.
Example: One holiday a year is not enough for me.
When do I use capital letters?
Use capital letters with:
Titles and people's names: Mrs Smith, Dr Lee, Queen Elizabeth II
Members of the family when used as names: Dad, Grandma
Addresses: Woodstock House, 16 West Road
Letter beginnings and endings: Dear Charlotte, Love from Emily, Yours sincerely
Geographical names: Rome (city), Spain (country), the Nile (river), the Pacific Ocean (ocean), Mount Everest (mountain)
Nationality adjectives and languages: English, Italian, French
Days of the week: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday
Months of the year: January, February, March
Festivals and special days: Christmas Day, Valentine's Day, Easter
Use small letters in sentences when referring to someone's job or position rather than his/her name or title:
Example: He is my doctor. The new queen is very young. This is my dad.
Write only the pronoun "I" with a capital letter:
Example: My sister and I went home, but then she went out again.
Do I need am / is / are in this sentence?
Use am / is / are:
With an adjective to describe people and things:
Example: My cousin is tall. He is good-looking too.
With -ing to form the present continuous:
Example: I hope you are feeling well.
With going to to talk about the future:
Example: I'm not going to go shopping on Saturday.
With the past participle to form the passive:
Example: Cardiff and Swansea are situated in south Wales.
After there and here:
Example: There are a lot of buildings near the school.
Example: Here's the book I promised you.
Note: Contractions ('m, 's, and 're) are often used in spoken and written English, especially after pronouns and short words.
TEST 1
Complete the phrases with a or an. Then rewrite the phrase with the adjective.
exam (hard) --> a hard exam
university (old) --> an old university
idea (interesting) --> an interesting idea
house (unusual) --> an unusual house
restaurant (expensive) --> an expensive restaurant
hour (extra) --> an extra hour
uncle (rich) --> a rich uncle
lesson (easy) --> an easy lesson
Rewrite the letter using capital letters where necessary.
Complete the text with am, is or are.
Write sentences using the notes. Use is or are and capital letters where necessary.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
Singular or plural?
Curtain or curtains?
Use "curtains" unless referring to one curtain only.
Example: I'd like to buy some new curtains for my room. (but The right curtain is longer than the left one.)
Holiday or holidays?
"a holiday" / "on holiday" when talking about a trip or a day off work.
"school holidays" / "summer holidays" to describe a period of time.
Example: I hope you enjoy your holiday in Britain.
Mountain or mountains?
Use "mountains" when talking about an area.
Example: My uncle's house is in the mountains near Turin.
Cloth, cloths or clothes?
Use "clothes" to talk about things people wear.
"an item" or "a piece of clothing" to describe one thing only.
"A cloth" (plural "cloths") is a piece of material for a particular purpose, e.g., table cloth, or for making clothes.
Example: I am going to buy some new clothes for the wedding.
Plural or uncountable?
Most plural nouns end in -s.
Some plural nouns are irregular:
man → men
woman → women
child → children
foot → feet
tooth → teeth
mouse → mice
Police and staff are also plural: The police are hard-working.
Some nouns have no plural form. These are 'uncountable' nouns such as water and cheese because we can't count them. We can only count glasses / bottles of water and pieces / slices of cheese.
Example: I'd like some water, please, and I'd like a glass of water, please. (not two waters)
Other common uncountable nouns include food, furniture, hair, homework, information, money and work.
Use singular verbs with uncountable nouns:
Example: The furniture in my bedroom looks good.
Example: My hair is dark brown. (but I've got one grey hair behind my ear.)
When do I use of and when do I use an apostrophe?
Use apostrophe + s ('s) to talk about things associated with one person:
Example: My friend's name is Natalia.
Example: These are my husband's things.
Use s + apostrophe (s') to talk about things associated with more than one person:
Example: Here is my friends' teacher.
Example: The students' records are in the cupboard.
Use an apostrophe + s ('s) with irregular plural nouns:
Example: The children's party is at the club.
Use apostrophe + s ('s) on its own:
Example: My birthday is the same day as my mother's.
Use "of" to talk about things associated with places and objects:
Example: Rome is the capital of Italy. (not Italy's capital)
Example: The answers are at the back of the book.
TEST 2
Insert an apostrophe where necessary.
Add the plural ending -s where necessary.
Rewrite these sentences in the plural form.
Write two sentences for each picture. Use some in the first sentence and one of the words in the box in the second.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
What's the negative form of have?
Use either "have" or "have got" when talking about possessions, families, personal characteristics and ailments.
Use "has" or "has got" with he, she, and it.
Example: I have a lot of clothes. / I've got a lot of clothes.
Example: My mother has a cousin in Australia. / My mother has got a cousin in Australia.
Negative forms are "don't/doesn't have" and "haven't/hasn't got":
Example: I don't have a camera. (not Haven't a camera.)
Example: My room hasn't got much furniture. (not My room hasn't much furniture.)
Use "have" (also "don't have" / "doesn't have") for actions:
Example: I don't have breakfast in the morning. (not Hhaven't breakfast)
Example: He has a shower every morning. (not He has got a shower)
The past tense of "have" and "have got" is "had".
The negative is "didn't have":
Example: I've got a terrible headache. I wasn't well yesterday, but I didn't have a headache. (not + hadn't a headache, I hadn't got a headache or I didn't have got a headache)
The future form is "will (ll) have".
The negative form is "won't have":
Example: If you take this tablet, you won't have a headache.
Present simple or present continuous?
Use the present simple to talk about:
Permanent states: I don't live near an underground station.
Regular habits: I play football most weekends.
General truths: Garage mechanics repair cars.
Use the present continuous to talk about current actions or events that are unfinished:
To describe what is happening at the time of speaking:
Example: Can you switch the TV off? I'm not watching it.
To describe temporary actions, often with today, this week, etc. to show the period of time:
Example: I'm walking to school this month. It's good for me.
To describe ongoing actions which are happening around this time but not necessarily at the time of speaking:
Example: I'm learning English because I want to work in a travel agent's.
Which verbs don't have a continuous form?
Do not use the continuous form with the following verbs which describe thoughts and feelings: believe, depend, forget, hate, know, like, love, mean, need, prefer, remember, understand, want
Some common verbs have more than one meaning.
Do not use the continuous form
when "think" means believe
when "have" refers to possession.
Compare:
I think it's going to rain soon. and I'm thinking about becoming a teacher.
My sister has a new car. and She isn't at home now. She's having a driving lesson.
Do not usually use the continuous form with hear, smell and taste.
Can use "seeing" when it refers to meeting someone in the future.
Often use "can" with hear, smell, taste and see to describe what is happening now.
Compare:
I (can) see two women in the picture. and I'm seeing my sister tomorrow evening.
Use both the continuous and simple form of look and feel to talk about now:
Example: You're looking tired. What's the matter? and You look tired. What's the matter?
Example: I'm feeling nervous about my exams. and I feel nervous about my exams.
TEST 3
Rewrite these sentences in the negative form.
Choose the correct form.
Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb.
Complete the postcard. Use the present simple, present continuous or can + infinitive form of the verbs in the box.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
Regular or irregular past simple forms?
Regular past simple forms end in -ed:
clean → cleaned
play → played
arrive → arrived
try → tried
carry → carried
tidy → tidied
plan → planned
slip → slipped
rob → robbed
Some verbs have irregular past simple forms:
go → went
find → found
pay → paid
say → said
buy → bought
bring → brought
Some verbs have the same past simple form and infinitive form:
let → let
put → put
cost → cost
read /ri:d/ → read /red/
Some irregular past simple forms are easily confused:
My uncle brought his wife with him. (bring)
We bought many presents when we were on holiday. (buy)
I slipped and fell down the stairs. (fall)
I got out of bed because I felt better. (feel)
How do I form the past simple negative?
Use did not (didn't) + the infinitive of the verb when forming the past simple negative. The main verb stays in the infinitive:
Example: I played tennis every day last week, but I didn't play yesterday. (not didn't played)
Example: It rained a lot in April, but it didn't rain much in May. (not it didn't rained)
Irregular verbs also use the infinitive in the negative:
Example: She went to the dentist yesterday morning, so she didn't go to work.
I didn't have time to go shopping yesterday. (not+hadn't time)
We say didn't have (not hadn't) (see Unit 7).
Some irregular verbs have the same infinitive and past simple form:
Example: I cut my nails every week. I didn't cut them at the weekend, so I cut them today.
Example: My sister put my books on the chair. She didn't put them on the table.
The verb read has the same infinitive and past simple form, but different pronunciation:
Example: I read /red/ a magazine on the train this morning. I didn't read /ri:d/ a newspaper.
Past simple or past continuous?
Use the past simple to talk about completed actions or events in the past.
Also use the past simple to describe a permanent state and regular habits:
Example: I watched the news on TV last night. At half past ten I went to bed.
Example: My father worked in London for fifteen years. He walked to the office every day.
Use the past continuous to refer to a particular moment and a temporary state:
Example: I was watching the news on TV at ten o'clock last night.
Example: I was in America last summer. I was working at a sports camp.
Use the past simple and past continuous together when something happened in the middle of something else.
Use the past continuous for two things happening at the same time and the past simple when one thing happened after another.
Compare:
I was watching TV when the phone rang.
My brother was getting ready for bed while I was watching TV.
When the phone rang, my brother answered it. He knew it would be his girlfriend.
Some verbs are not normally used in the continuous (see Unit 9).
TEST 4
Read the first text. It describes what Pete does every day. Complete the second text with the past simple.
Complete the sentences with a negative form from the box of the past simple.
Look at the pictures. They show what Ben and Katie did yesterday. Complete the sentences with positive and negative forms of the past simple.
Complete the sentences using the past simple and past continuous.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
How do I use personal pronouns?
Use my, your, his, her, its, our and their with a noun:
Example: My bedroom is the smallest. She left her handbag on the train.
Use mine instead of my + noun when referring to the same thing again in a sentence.
Use yours, his, hers, ours, theirs in the same way:
Example: The smallest bedroom is mine. The largest one is yours.
Use me, you, him, her, it, us, them:
As the object of a verb:
Example: I hope you'll bring me a surprise.
After a preposition such as for, to, with:
Example: The teacher had some advice for them.
How do I use reflexives?
Use me, you, him, her, it, us, them as the object of a verb:
Example: My uncle came to visit me for three days.
Example: Our teacher is great. We like him a lot.
Use myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves when the subject and object of a verb are the same:
Example: I was angry with myself when I lost my watch.
Example: Take care of yourself.
Example: We went out and bought ourselves a drink.
Example: They introduced themselves by saying where they came from.
Use each other when two (or more) people do the same thing to the other.
Often use each other with (get to) know, like, meet, phone, see, tell, understand, write:
Example: I hope we'll see each other soon, Sarah.
Example: Everyone in the class knows each other very well.
Many, much or a lot of?
Use many with countable nouns and much with uncountable nouns in negative statements and questions:
Example: I didn't have much fun at the party.
Example: Did you take many photos when you were on holiday?
Use a lot of in
positive and negative statements and questions, in informal and spoken English (though not considered correct in written and formal English)
Example: I tried on a lot of clothes in the shop.
Example: I didn't have a lot of fun at the party.
Example: Did you take a lot of photos when you were on holiday?
Use a lot without a noun:
Example: The teacher told me a lot about his experiences.
Use much without a noun in negative statements and questions:
Example: The lesson was interesting, but we didn't learn much.
Example: Do you use the Internet much?
TEST 5
Rewrite the sentences in the negative form. Use much and many. Which sentence in each pair is true for you?
Put the words in the correct order to make sentences.
Complete the sentences with possessive adjectives (my, our, etc.) and possessive pronouns (mine, ours, etc.).
Circle the correct word for each space and complete the text.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
Something, anything, nothing or everything?
Use something and nothing in positive statements:
Example: I wanted to watch something on TV.
Example: When I lost my money, there was nothing I could do.
Use anything in negative statements and questions:
Example: When I lost my money, there wasn't anything I could do (not there wasn't nothing)
Example: I couldn't afford anything very expensive. (not couldn't afford something)
Example: Did you buy anything to wear for the party?
Example: I'm not very lucky - I never win anything.
Use anything with will, could and would to mean 'any thing, it does not matter what':
Example: I will do anything to have my watch back.
Example: I liked the belt because I could wear it with anything.
Use everything to mean 'all things':
Example: My friend and I do everything together. (not do all together)
Example: I can't say everything I want to say.
Same sound, different spelling
To, too and two are homophones - they have the same pronunciation but different spelling:
Example: The music wasn't too loud and I talked to a lot of people, including two Italian girls.
Aloud and allowed are homophones:
Example: We're not allowed to read aloud in the library.
Other homophones are: hole / whole, know / no, meat / meet, passed / past, right / write, their / there, wait / weight, weather / whether
Use maybe (one word) to mean perhaps. This is different from may be (modal verb + infinitive without to). Similarly, already and all ready have different meanings.
Compare:
I want my room yellow, or maybe orange.
I am not sure, but the teacher may be late today.
When I got to the cinema, the film had already started.
The students are all ready to go. (all the students are ready to go)
Note that we can say the other but not an other. We write another as one word:
Example: I will write you another letter soon.
Commonly confused nouns
House or home?
Use house for the building, with a possessive form to say whose house it is; use home for the place where the speaker (or the person the speaker is referring to) lives:
Example: Patrick and I stayed at his house overnight.
Example: My brother left home when he was seventeen.
Say be / live / stay at home, and go / get / come / return / arrive home:
Example: He was at home all evening. His parents returned home later that night.
Say be / stay, arrive at (someone's) house and go / get / come / return to (someone's) house.
Compare:
I didn't go home until midnight. and My cousin and I went to her house.
We arrived home very late. and My friend will arrive at our house soon.
Place, room or space?
Use place when you talk about a specific position or area. Use room or space when you talk in general. Place is countable; room and space are uncountable:
Example: There isn't much space in my bedroom. I don't have enough room for all my clothes. This is a good place for my photos.
TEST 6
Underline the correct word.
Complete the sentences with homophones.
Insert n't (not) where necessary.
Circle the correct word for each space and complete the text.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
Which verbs take to + verb after them?
Use to + verb after want:
Example: I want to buy a new radio.
Use to + verb after would like (or 'd like):
Example: Perhaps you would like to go for a walk.
Use to after would love, would hate and would prefer.
Example: I would love to improve my English.
Can use either to + verb or verb + -ing after like, love, hate, and prefer.
Example: I like to brush my hair in front of the mirror. (or I like brushing)
Also use to + verb after verbs such as decide, expect, forget, hope, learn, need, plan, promise, try:
Example: Where did you decide to go at the weekend?
Can also use nouns or noun phrases after all these verbs:
Example: I want a new radio.
Example: I'll decide what to do very soon.
Which form of the verb do I use after look forward to?
Use to + verb after some verbs. (see Unit 19):
Example: I want to change my bed because it is old.
Use look forward to + verb + -ing:
Example: I look forward to hearing from you. (not Hook forward to hear from you.)
Example: We're looking forward to seeing you soon.
This is because to in look forward to is a preposition:
Example: Are you looking forward to the end of term?
Use -ing after both the preposition to and other prepositions such as in, on, for:
Example: I prefer speaking to writing English.
Example: Are you interested in going on the tour?
Also use verb + -ing after verbs such as avoid, enjoy, finish, practise, stop:
Example: We really enjoy being in this class.
Example: I finished writing my diary at half past eleven.
Which form of the verb do I use after can and could?
Use can + infinitive without to:
Example: Maybe we can see each other in the holidays.
Example: You can find everything you need in the market.
Also use the infinitive without to after might, could, should, must:
Example: Our teacher said she might be late.
Example: We could stop now and have a drink.
Example: Should I tell you what I did?
Use could + infinitive without to to talk about the past. Don't change the form of the main verb:
Example: When I entered the club, I couldn't see any of my friends. (not I couldn't saw)
Example: I wanted to help my friend, but there was nothing I could do.
Note that use could + have (done) for things which were possible but didn't happen in the past:
Example: I could have told you the answer, but you didn't ask me.
TEST 7
Insert to in these sentences where necessary.
Rewrite the sentences with the -ing form of the verb where possible.
Complete the sentences with suitable verbs.
Circle the correct word for each space and complete the text.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
How do I form adjectives from nouns?
Adjectives are sometimes formed by adding -y, -al, etc. to the noun:
rain --> rainy
Some adjective endings:
-al:
environment → environmental
music → musical
-ful:
colour → colourful
wonder → wonderful
-less (meaning 'without'):
child → childless
home → homeless
-ish:
fool → foolish
self → selfish
-ous:
danger → dangerous
mountain → mountainous
Sometimes change the ending of the noun to form the adjective:
sun → sunny
beauty → beautiful
fame → famous
Many adjectives end in -ed and -ing.
Adjectives ending in -ed describe how people feel.
Adjectives ending in -ing cause people to feel this way.
Example: I'm interested in this book, and This book looks interesting.
Example: I wasn't surprised I missed the plane. and It wasn't surprising I missed the plane.
Very or really?
Use very with adjectives such as big and angry.
The words huge and furious mean 'very big' and 'very angry', so use adverbs such as absolutely and completely instead:
Example: I thought the palace would be very big, but it was absolutely huge.
Do not use so, much or too instead of very in the above sentence. Use really with big/huge and other pairs of adjectives.
Compare
very / really good and really / absolutely excellent, fantastic, great, wonderful
very / really bad and really / absolutely awful, dreadful, horrible, terrible
Can use very with much, but this is usually in negative sentences:
Example: I don't like opera very much, but I like modern music a lot.
If something makes us laugh, we say it is (very) funny. But if we're enjoying ourselves, we say we're having (great) fun. A person can also be (great) fun:
Example: My cousin is great fun. He tells some very funny stories.
How do I form adverbs?
Use adverbs to describe verbs.
In general, form an adverb by adding -ly to an adjective:
clear → clearly
fortunate → fortunately
careful → carefully
If an adjective ends in y, change the y to i before adding -ly:
easy → easily
happy → happily
lucky → luckily
Can't make adverbs from adjectives such as friendly and lovely, which already end in -ly. Instead, use the adjective + fashion, manner or way:
Example: The teacher spoke to me in a friendly way.
Some adverbs are irregular:
Good is an adjective, and well is an adverb.
Fast and hard are both.
Also use hardly before a verb to mean 'only just, almost not':
Example: I hardly play chess at all. My brother is a good chess player. He plays chess well. He works hard to improve his game.
Sometimes use adverbs such as really, completely, absolutely, truly (true + -ly) with adjectives (see Unit 23):
Example: My new watch is truly lovely.
TEST 8
Underline the adverbs and circle the adjectives in this text.
Add the word in brackets.
Complete the rest of the missing words.
Complete the second sentence so that it has the same meaning as the first.
Are the sentences right or wrong? Correct those which are wrong.
Which, who or that?
Use which for things and who for people when combining two pieces of information to say exactly which thing or person. Which and who refer to the subject
Example: I'm wearing a ring. It was my aunt's. → I'm wearing a ring which was my aunt's.
Example: I know a woman. She is a doctor. → I know a woman who is a doctor.
Example: The waiter was Italian. He served us. → The waiter who served us was Italian.
Use that instead of which or who in sentences like these, although who is more common for people (especially family members). Don't usually use that for people.
Often use which / that and who when defining things or people. Don't use what:
Example: A dictionary is a book which / that lists words and tells you what they mean. (not a book what lists)
Example: A waiter is someone who serves customers food and drink.
Can either include or omit which, who and that when they refer to the object:
Example: The teacher told a joke. I already knew it. The teacher told a joke (which/that) I already knew.
Depending on the emphasis you want to give, you could also say:
Example: I already knew the joke (which/that) the teacher told.
How do I give extra information?
Use which to give extra information about something:
Example: The walls, which are pink, need painting again.
Example: I'm in Brazil, which is a beautiful country.
Use a comma before and after the extra information when it comes in the middle of a sentence and before the extra information when it comes at the end.
In the same way, use who to give extra information about someone:
Example: My best friend, who is the same age as I am, wants to study English too.
Don't use that to give extra information:
Example: My room, which is on the first floor, is very small. (not My room, that is on the first floor)
Example: I work with Emilia, who comes from Peru. (not Emilia, that comes from Peru)
When talking about 'a fact,' use which:
Example: I failed my exam, which was surprising. (not my exam, that was surprising)
Use what to mean 'the things that.' Compare:
Example: That is the information which / that I have. and That is the information I have. (not the information what I have)
Example: I can tell you what I know.
Which prepositions do I use after arrive?
Say arrive in a country, city or town, and arrive at all other places:
Example: I have just arrived in Brazil.
Example: We arrived at the airport two hours before our flight.
In informal situations, can use get (to) instead of arrive (in/at). Also say arrive home / get home, arrive here / get here, and arrive there / get there.
Example: We will arrive in Malaga very soon. and We will get to Malaga very soon.
Example: I didn't arrive at work until ten o'clock. and I didn't get to work until ten o'clock.
Example: We arrived home late at night. and We got home late at night.
Note that you can arrive, but you must get somewhere:
Example: I'll phone you when we arrive. (not when we get)
Use at, in and on with expressions of time:
at: at two o'clock, at midnight, at night, at the weekend, at Christmas
in: in the evening, in July, in summer, in 2008
on: on Monday, on Monday evening, on 22 July, on Christmas Day
Note that usually talk about place before time:
Example: I arrived at school at half past eight in the morning.
TEST 9
Complete the sentences with an appropriate preposition where necessary.