Comprehensive Guide to Composition, Diction, and Sentence Construction

Fundamentals of Diction and Exact Writing

• Definition and Function of Diction:

  • Diction is defined as "Word choice or vocabulary. Diction refers to the class of words that an author decides is appropriate to use in a particular work" (Kennedy and Gioia 715).
  • "The style of a piece of writing is largely determined by diction: by choice and use of words" (Messenger et al. 127).
  • When choosing diction, a writer must "Consider the occasion, the purpose, and the audience" (Messenger et al. 127).

• Guiding Principles for Word Choice:

  • "Avoid words and phrases that call attention to themselves rather than to the meaning you want to convey" (Messenger et al. 127).
  • "Avoid slang and colloquial or informal terms at one extreme, and pretentious language at the other" (Messenger et al. 127–28).
  • "Avoid diction that decreases precision and clarity" (Messenger et al. 133).

• Concrete vs. Abstract Diction:

  • Concrete Diction: "Concrete words denote things that are tangible, capable of being apprehended by our physical senses" (Messenger et al. 129).
  • Abstract Diction: "Abstract words denote intangibles, like ideas or qualities" (Messenger et al. 129).
  • Psychological and Rhetorical Value: "The more concrete your writing, the more readily your readers will grasp it, for the concreteness will provide images for their imaginations to respond to" (Messenger et al. 129).
  • Contrast Example:
    • Abstract: "Transportation is becoming a major problem in our city."
    • Concrete: "In the downtown core of this city, far too many cars and far too few buses travel the streets."

• Unsupported Generalizations:

  • "Merely stating a generalization or assumption is not enough; to be clear and effective it must be illustrated and supported by specifics" (Messenger et al. 130).
  • "A common weakness of student writing is an overdependence on unsupported generalizations" (Messenger 130).
  • Example of an unsupported generalization: "Students today are happy to spend time in the library."

• Euphemisms and Misdirection:

  • Definition: "Euphemisms are substitutes for words whose meanings are felt to be unpleasant and therefore, in certain circumstances, undesirable" (Messenger et al. 130).
  • Critical Warning: "Euphemisms used to gloss over some supposed unpleasantness may deceive" (Messenger et al. 130).
  • Examples:
    • "ethnic cleansing" (masking mass murder/genocide)
    • "declared redundant" (masking firing or layoffs)
    • "negative patient-care outcome" (masking medical injury or death)

• Wrong Words and Easily Confused Pairs:

  • "Any error in diction is a 'wrong word'" (Messenger et al. 131).
  • Distinction Between Affect and Effect:
    • Affect: Chiefly used as a verb meaning "to influence or make a difference to" (e.g., "The weather severely affected their wedding day.").
    • Effect: Most commonly used as a noun meaning "a result or influence" (e.g., "The goal had a big effect on the whole match.").
    • Effect (Verb Form): Used in formal contexts as a verb meaning "to bring something about as a result" (e.g., "The courts effected many reforms.").

*   **Frequently Confused Word Pairs:**
    *   accept and except
    *   affect and effect
    *   complement and compliment
    *   conscience and conscious
    *   consul, council, and counsel
    *   desert and dessert
    *   lead and led
    *   miner and minor
    *   moral and morale
    *   personal and personnel
    *   principal and principle
    *   than and then
    *   their, they're, and there
    *   threw and through
    *   to and too
    *   who's and whose
    *   woman and women

Eliminating Wordiness, Redundancy, Clichés, and Jargon

• Economy of Language (Wordiness):

  • "Generally, the fewer words you use to make a point, the better" (Messenger et al. 133).
  • "Useless words clutter up a sentence; they dissipate its force, cloud its meaning, blunt its effectiveness" (Messenger et al. 133).
  • Unedited (Wordy): "What a person should try to do when communicating by writing is to make sure the meaning of what he is trying to say is clear."
  • Edited (Concise): "A writer should strive to make his meaning clear."

• Repetition:

  • Positive Function: "Repetition can be useful for coherence and emphasis" (Messenger et al. 133).
  • Negative Function: "…unnecessary repetition usually produces wordiness and awkwardness as well" (Messenger et al. 133).
  • Wordy: "Looking at the general appearance of the buildings, you can see that special consideration was given to the choice of colors for these buildings."
  • Revised: "Looking at the buildings, you can see that special consideration was given to the choice of colors."

• Redundancy and Doubling:

  • Redundancy: "Redundancy, another cause of wordiness, is repetition of an idea rather than a word. Something is redundant if it has already been expressed earlier in a sentence" (Messenger et al. 134).
  • Redundant Expressions:
    • "In my opinion, I think …"
    • "general consensus"
    • "reduce down"
    • "mental attitude"
  • Doubling: "One common kind of redundancy is called 'doubling' – adding an unnecessary second word (usually an adjective) as if to make sure the meaning of the first is clear" (Messenger et al. 134).
    • Doubling Example: "The report was brief and concise."

• Ready-Made, Prefabricated Phrases:

  • "Prefabricated or formulaic phrases that leap to our minds whole are almost always wordy" (Messenger et al. 134).
  • "You can often edit them out of a draft altogether, or at least use shorter equivalents" (Messenger et al. 135).

*   **Standard Formulaic Phrases and Their Shorter Equivalents:**
    *   *at that time*, *at that point in time* $\rightarrow$ use **then**
    *   *at the present time*, *at this time*, *at this point in time* $\rightarrow$ use **now**
    *   *at the same time* $\rightarrow$ use **while**
    *   *by means of* $\rightarrow$ use **by**
    *   *due to the fact that*, *because of the fact that*, *on account of the fact that*, *in view of the fact that*, *owing to the fact that* $\rightarrow$ use **because**
    *   *during the course of*, *in the course of* $\rightarrow$ use **during**
    *   *for the purpose of* $\rightarrow$ use **for**, **to**
    *   *for the reason that*, *for the simple reason that* $\rightarrow$ use **because**
    *   *in all likelihood*, *in all probability* $\rightarrow$ use **probably**
    *   *in height* $\rightarrow$ use **high**
    *   *in length* $\rightarrow$ use **long**
    *   *in order to* $\rightarrow$ use **to**
    *   *in spite of the fact that* $\rightarrow$ use **although**
    *   *in the event that* $\rightarrow$ use **if**
    *   *in this day and age* $\rightarrow$ use **now**, **today**
    *   *period of time* $\rightarrow$ use **period**, **time**
    *   *previous to*, *prior to* $\rightarrow$ use **before**

• Triteness and Clichés:

  • "Trite or hackneyed expressions, clichés are another form of wordiness: they are tired, worn out, all too familiar, and therefore contribute little to a sentence" (Messenger et al. 135).
  • Examples of Clichés to Avoid:
    • "all things being equal"
    • "conspicuous by its absence"
    • "in a manner of speaking"
    • "off the beaten path"
    • "rude awakening"
    • "sharp as a tack"
    • "when all is said and done"

• Jargon:

  • "The private languages of particular disciplines or special groups are quite legitimately used in writing for members of those communities. Much less legitimate is the confusing incomprehensible language that so easily finds its way into the speech and writing of most of us" (Messenger et al. 137).

Sentence Purpose and Core Grammatical Components

• Purpose of Sentences:

  • "All sentences have this purpose: to communicate ideas and/or feelings. We know how to interpret different kinds of utterances because we understand and accept the conventions of the way sentences communicate" (Messenger et al. 28).
  • Sentences are classified grammatically according to the communicative purpose each serves.

• Four Primary Sentence Purposes:

  • Declarative: Makes statements or states a fact.
    • Examples: "I finished my assignment." / "Olive is adorable." / "Olive is better than your dog."
  • Interrogative: Asks a question.
    • Examples: "Did you finish your assignment?" / "How adorable is she?" / "Is Olive better than my dog?"
  • Imperative: Gives a command or makes a request.
    • Examples: "Hand in your assignment." / "Look." / "Show me your dog."
    • Syntax of Commands: The subject [You] is implied, suggested, or understood rather than explicitly stated (e.g., "[You] Sit down.", "[You] Please read it!", "[You] Read it now!").
  • Exclamatory: Exclaims, expressing strong feeling or emphasis.
    • Examples: "I did!" / "Extremely adorable!" / "I will!"

• Standard Declarative Structure:

  • A standard declarative sentence consists of two core parts: a subject and a predicate.
  • Subject: What acts or is talked about. The essential element of the subject is a noun or a pronoun.
  • Predicate: Says something about the subject. The essential element of a predicate is a verb.
  • Minimal Predication Examples: "Olive runs." / "I teach." / "Students sleep."
  • Expanded Predication Examples: "Heather teaches this class." / "The squirrels won the war." / "Olive is adorable."

• Classification of Nouns:

  • Nouns name people, places, things, and ideas.
  • Proper Noun: Capitalized; designates a specific person, place, or thing (e.g., Heather, Grande Prairie).
  • Common Noun: "names a general class of people, places, or things and is not capitalized" (Selby and Bledsoe 32) (e.g., squirrels, rivers, books).

• Pronoun Classification and Inflectional Cases:

  • "Pronouns are naming words that are used to take the place of nouns" (Selby and Bledsoe 33).

*   **Inflectional Cases of Personal Pronouns:**
    *   *Singular 1st Person:* Subject: **I**; Object: **me**; Possessive Pronoun: **mine**; Possessive Adjective: **my**.
    *   *Singular 2nd Person:* Subject: **you**; Object: **you**; Possessive Pronoun: **yours**; Possessive Adjective: **your**.
    *   *Singular 3rd Person (Masculine):* Subject: **he**; Object: **him**; Possessive Pronoun: **his**; Possessive Adjective: **his**.
    *   *Singular 3rd Person (Feminine):* Subject: **she**; Object: **her**; Possessive Pronoun: **hers**; Possessive Adjective: **her**.
    *   *Singular 3rd Person (Neuter):* Subject: **it**; Object: **it**; Possessive Pronoun: *(none)*; Possessive Adjective: **its**.
    *   *Plural 1st Person:* Subject: **we**; Object: **us**; Possessive Pronoun: **ours**; Possessive Adjective: **our**.
    *   *Plural 2nd Person:* Subject: **you**; Object: **you**; Possessive Pronoun: **yours**; Possessive Adjective: **your**.
    *   *Plural 3rd Person:* Subject: **they**; Object: **them**; Possessive Pronoun: **theirs**; Possessive Adjective: **their**.
*   **Additional Pronoun Groups:**
    *   *Indefinite / Quantitative:* each, many, few, both, several, one, some, anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, somebody, none, all.
    *   *Demonstrative:* this, these, those.
    *   *Relative / Interrogative:* who, whom, whoever, whomever, whose, which, what.
    *   *Reflexive / Intensive:* myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves.

Verbs, Modifiers, and Grammatical Verbals

• Verbs:

  • Verbs express "not only action but also occurrence, process, and condition or state of being" (Messenger et al. 89).
  • "All verbs assert or ask something about their subjects…" (Messenger et al. 89).
  • Direct Object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. It is identified by placing whom or what directly after the verb (e.g., "The students wrote midterms." $\rightarrow$ wrote what? $\rightarrow$ midterms).

• Verb Phrases and Helping Verbs:

  • Auxiliary Verbs: "Auxiliary or helping verbs go with other verbs to form verb phrases indicating tense, voice, and mood" (Messenger et al. 92).
    • Example: "will win" (indicates simple future tense in "The squirrels will win the war.").
  • Common Helping Verbs: The primary auxiliary verbs are inflected forms of be, have, and do.
    • Main Verb alone: "I like puppies."
    • Auxiliary Verb added: "I do like puppies." / "I do not like puppies." (do = helping verb; like = main verb).
  • Modal Auxiliaries: A specialized category of helping verbs indicating modality:
    • can $\rightarrow$ indicates ability
    • must $\rightarrow$ indicates obligation
    • may, might, could $\rightarrow$ indicate possibility
    • should $\rightarrow$ indicates advice
    • Example: "You should obey Olive." (should = modal auxiliary; obey = main verb).

• Infinitives:

  • No verb form preceded by the word to can function as the verb of a sentence.
  • The grammatical formula $to + \text{verb}$ constitutes an infinitive.
  • Infinitives can act as nouns (subjects or objects), adjectives, or adverbs, but they can never function as the main predicate verb.
  • Examples: "I like to attend class." / "I love to read." / "Squirrels plan to attack."

• Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs):

  • Adjectives: Words that "describe, clarify, or limit (modify) a noun or pronoun" (Selby and Bledsoe 36).
    • They answer the descriptive questions: "Which one? What kind? How many? Whose?" (Selby and Bledsoe 36).
    • Articles (Non-Descriptive Adjectives): a, an, the.
    • Examples: "A small dog" / "An intelligent instructor" / "The evil squirrel"
    • Pronominal Adjectives: Possessive forms such as his, your, my, her, our, their, and its function simultaneously as pronouns and adjectives (e.g., "Heather prepared her lecture.", "This is my squirrel.").
  • Adverbs: "Like adjectives, adverbs are modifiers. Unlike adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs" (Selby and Bledsoe 51).
    • Most adverbs end in -ly.
    • They answer: "How? Where? When? Why? To what extent? and On what condition?" (Selby and Bledsoe 51).
    • Examples: "The squirrels march quickly." / "She writes clearly." / "My dog jumps quite well." / "The bored student left early." / "The hungry squirrel ate rapidly." / "My dog snores loudly."

• Contextual Shift in Part of Speech:

  • The grammatical part of speech of a word depends entirely on how it functions syntactically within a particular sentence (Selby and Bledsoe 59):
    • "The squirrel is wearing a yellow hat." $\rightarrow$ Adjective (modifies the noun "hat").
    • "Yellow is my favorite color." $\rightarrow$ Noun (acts as the subject of the sentence).
    • "The pages of the book yellowed over time." $\rightarrow$ Verb (acts as the simple past predicate).

• Gerunds:

  • "When the ing form of a verb functions as a noun, it is called a gerund" (Messenger et al. 118).
  • Gerund as Object: "Olive fears flying."
  • Gerund as Subject: "Moving is hard work."
  • Gerund vs. Present Progressive Verb Comparison:
    • Verb: "I am reading the assigned work." (part of the active predicate verb phrase am reading).
    • Gerund: "Reading the assigned work is important." (acts as the nominal subject of the predicate is).

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

• Nature and Function of Phrases:

  • A phrase is defined as a group of words lacking a subject and/or predicate but functioning as a unified grammatical unit within a sentence.
  • Infinitive Phrase: "The general wants to win the war."
  • Participial Phrase: "Trusting his officers, the soldier bravely fought."
  • Prepositional Phrase: "During the exam, she cried."

• Prepositional Phrases:

  • "Prepositions are words that show concepts such as time, place, direction, and manner. They show connections or relationships between ideas" (Gaetz et al. 400; Messenger et al. 174).
  • Most prepositions indicate spatial or temporal relations, or matters such as purpose, concession, comparison, manner, and agency.
  • Prepositional phrases function syntactically as either adjectival or adverbial modifiers.

• Governing Rules of Prepositions:

  • The Subject Rule: "The subject of a sentence is NEVER in a prepositional phrase."
  • The Object Rule: "A preposition always takes an object. To find the object of the preposition, make a question of the preposition. (What? Whom?) The answer will always be the object" (Messenger et al. 173).
  • "A preposition is part of a prepositional phrase, and it usually precedes the rest of the phrase, which includes a noun or pronoun as the object of the preposition" (Messenger et al. 173).
    • Example: "She sent an email to her friend." $\rightarrow$ To whom? $\rightarrow$ friend (friend is the object of the preposition to).
    • Example: "I placed my coffee on the desk." $\rightarrow$ On what? $\rightarrow$ desk (desk is the object of the preposition on).
    • Example: "I watched a documentary about squirrels." (squirrels = object of about).
    • Example: "Between you and me, English 1201 is my favorite class." (you and me = compound object of between).
    • Example: "The small, quick dog ran into the dense, dark woods." (woods = object of into).

• Common Prepositions Reference List:

  • about, above, according to, across, across from, after, against, ahead of, along, alongside, among, apart from, around, as, as for, at, away from, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, by way of, concerning, considering, contrary to, despite, down, during, except, except for, excepting, for, from, in, in addition to, including, in front of, in order to, in place of, in relation to, inside, in spite of, into, like, near, next to, notwithstanding, of, off, on, on account of, onto, on top of, opposite, out, outside, over, past, regarding, regardless of, round, since, such as, through, throughout, till, to, toward(s), under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, with, within, without.

Sentence Classification and Clause Structures

• Clause Definitions:

  • A clause is a group of words containing both a subject and a predicate.
  • An independent (main) clause contains a subject and a predicate, expresses a complete thought, and can stand alone as a grammatical sentence.
  • A dependent (subordinate) clause contains a subject and a predicate but does not express a complete thought; it depends upon an independent main clause to complete its meaning.

• Simple Sentences:

  • A simple sentence contains exactly one independent clause, having one subject and one predicate, and expresses a complete, standalone idea.
  • Basic Structures: "Olive is a benevolent ruler." / "The students wrote midterms." / "Fierce squirrels attacked the unfortunate librarian."
  • Inverted Structure: "By the window sits a small plant." (The subject "a small plant" follows the verb "sits").
  • Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs: A sentence remains simple even if the subject, the verb, or both are compound:
    • Compound Subject: "Wendy and Jason travel often." / "Grammar Squirrel and Grammar Badger enjoy their classes."
    • Compound Verb: "We laughed and talked for hours." / "A squirrel mocked and taunted the unsuspecting English professor."
    • Compound Subject and Compound Verb: "Olive and Tabby schemed and plotted." / "Heather and Olive drove to the park and walked for hours."

• Compound Sentences:

  • A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.
  • They are joined together in one of three ways:
    1. A comma and a coordinating conjunction.
    2. A semicolon alone.
    3. A semicolon and a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression followed by a comma.

• Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS):

  • "Coordinating conjunctions connect words of equal grammatical units" (Selby and Bledsoe 55).
  • For: Indicates cause or reason (e.g., "Heather returns her books on time, for she fears the librarians.").
  • And: Indicates addition (e.g., "The conductor's baton fell, and the concert ended.").
  • Nor: Indicates negative addition ("also not").
  • But: Indicates contrast or opposition (e.g., "Students enjoy attending class, but they dislike working on assignments.").
  • Or: Indicates choice.
  • Yet: Indicates contrast or opposition.
  • So: Indicates effect or result (e.g., "My instructor is often cold, so she huddles by the photocopier for warmth.").

• Semicolons and Conjunctive Adverbs in Compound Sentences:

  • Semicolon Alone: "The semicolon is a heavy separator, often almost equivalent to a period or 'full stop'" (Messenger et al. 158). "Generally, use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses that are not joined by one of the coordinating conjunctions" (Messenger et al. 158).
    • Examples: "The librarians demand respect; they control the books." / "The clouds massed thickly against the hills; the rain fell in torrents."
  • Semicolon with Conjunctive Adverbs: "Be sure to use a semicolon and not just a comma between independent clauses that you join with a conjunctive adverb, including however and therefore" (Messenger et al. 159).
    • Function: Conjunctive adverbs join whole sentences to each other and indicate the logical nature of the connection.
    • Conjunctive Adverbs Inventory: accordingly, afterward, also, anyway, besides, certainly, consequently, conversely, finally, further, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, instead, later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, therefore, thus, undoubtedly.
    • Transitional Expressions Inventory: after this, as a result, for example, for this reason, if not, in addition, in fact, in short, in the meantime, on the contrary, on the other hand, that is.
    • Positional Flexibility of Conjunctive Adverbs (e.g., 'however'):
      • At start of clause: "She completed the assignment; however, she forgot to submit it."
      • At end of clause: "She completed the assignment; she forgot to submit it, however."
      • Inside the clause: "She completed the assignment; she forgot, however, to submit it."

• Complex Sentences:

  • A complex sentence consists of exactly one independent clause and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses.
  • Subordinating Conjunctions: "A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate (or dependent) clause and links it to the independent (or main or principal) clause to which it is grammatically related" (Messenger et al. 125).
  • Subordinating Conjunctions Inventory (Messenger et al. 126): after, although, as, as though, because, before, even though, ever since, if, if only, in case, lest, once, rather than, since, than, that, though, till, unless, until, what, whatever, when(ever), where(ever), whereas, whether, which, while, who, why.
  • Comma Rule for Subordinate Clauses: When a sentence begins with a dependent adverbial clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction, place a comma after the dependent clause. When the independent clause comes first, a comma is generally unnecessary.
    • Beginning: "Although I often buy books, I do not read many because squirrels eat them."
    • End: "I enjoy spending time with Olive because she is sweet and gentle."

• Compound-Complex Sentences:

  • A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses.
  • Example 1: "My professor enjoys reading, and she owns many books, which sit on shelves in her office."
    • Clause 1 (Independent): "My professor enjoys reading"
    • Clause 2 (Independent): "she owns many books"
    • Clause 3 (Subordinate): "which sit on shelves in her office"
  • Example 2: "While I was asleep, Olive shopped online, for she was bored."
    • Clause 1 (Subordinate): "While I was asleep"
    • Clause 2 (Independent): "Olive shopped online"
    • Clause 3 (Independent): "for she was bored"
  • Example 3: "She ran down the stairs and quickly entered the classroom, but the students had found someone else to teach them about grammar because they were so eager to learn."

Subordination, Coordination, and Relative Pronouns

• Relative Pronouns in Complex Sentences:

  • Dependent relative clauses can be introduced using relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, and whose.

• Rules for That vs. Which:

  • Both that and which refer to non-human entities, animals, or inanimate objects.
  • That (Restrictive / Essential Clauses):
    • Adds essential restrictive information defining the noun.
    • Never set off with commas.
    • Example: "Bob Squirrel began his army career in a town that is southeast of Grande Prairie."
    • Example: "The house that is by the mailboxes is a squirrel fortress."
  • Which (Nonrestrictive / Nonessential Clauses):
    • Adds nonessential, parenthetical information.
    • Always set off with commas.
    • Example: "Larry Squirrel lives in Grande Prairie, which is the squirrel capital of Canada."
    • Example: "I read a novel about Ireland's participation in the First World War in EN1220, which is one of my electives."
  • Semantic Distinctions of That vs. Which:
    • Restrictive: "Local sports teams that have very little funding can still succeed." $\rightarrow$ Specifies only some teams (those with little funding).
    • Nonrestrictive: "Local sports teams, which have very little funding, can still succeed." $\rightarrow$ Generalizes to all local teams (asserting that all of them have little funding).

• Rules for Who, Whom, and Whose:

  • Used to introduce information concerning persons.
  • Essential vs. Nonessential Punctuation:
    • If the clause is essential to identify the person, omit commas.
    • If the clause provides nonessential descriptive information (the sentence remains complete without it), surround it with commas (e.g., "Wendy, who is my sister, is an insurance agent.").
  • Case Selection (Who vs. Whom):
    • Who: Subjective case; functions as the subject of the subordinate clause. Use who if the pronoun can be substituted with he or she (e.g., "The lawyer who specializes in environmental law is speaking today.").
    • Whom: Objective case; functions as the direct or prepositional object in the subordinate clause. Use whom if the pronoun can be substituted with him or her (e.g., "The lawyer whom you met is my mother." $\rightarrow$ you met her).
  • Whose:
    • Possessive case; shows ownership or belonging and substitutes for possessive pronouns (his, her, their).
    • Example: "The professor, whose squirrel lurked behind her unsuspecting students, lectured."

Sentence Combining Strategies

• Purpose of Sentence Combining:

  • To set ideas, evidence, and examples in clear, logical relation to one another by eliminating repetitive short sentences and creating rhythmic sentence variety.

• Worked Sentence-Combining Scenario:

  • Base Choppy Text (Four Simple Sentences):
    1. "Olive is an introvert."
    2. "She enjoys spending time alone."
    3. "She often hides in closets and behind curtains."
    4. "She requires solitude to think."
  • Combination 1 (Compound Sentence Integration):
    • "Olive is an introvert. She enjoys spending time alone, so she often hides in closets and behind curtains. She requires solitude to think."
    • Method: Joins sentences 2 and 3 using a comma and the coordinating conjunction so.
  • Combination 2 (Two Complex Sentences):
    • "Olive is an introvert, who enjoys spending time alone. She often hides in closets and behind curtains because she requires solitude to think."
    • Method: Converts sentence 2 into a dependent relative clause modifying "introvert" using who, and subordinates sentence 4 to sentence 3 using the subordinating conjunction because.
  • Combination 3 (Complex plus Compound Structure):
    • "Olive is an introvert, who enjoys spending time alone. She often hides in closets and behind curtains, for she requires solitude to think."
    • Method: Creates a complex sentence followed by a compound sentence joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction for.

Identifying and Correcting Major Sentence Errors

• Sentence Fragments:
  • Conditions of Occurrence:
    1. A word group lacks a subject, a predicate, or both.
    2. A dependent (subordinate) clause is left unjoined to an independent main clause.

*   **Diagnostic Flowchart for Finding Fragments (Henderson 322):**
    *   *Check 1:* Does the word group contain a subject (tells who or what), and is there an action performed by the subject? If NO $\rightarrow$ it's a fragment.
    *   *Check 2:* Does the word group consist of only nouns/pronouns preceded by prepositions? If YES $\rightarrow$ it's a fragment.
    *   *Check 3:* Is the only identifiable verb form in the word group an infinitive (e.g., *to be*, *to know*, *to learn*)? If YES $\rightarrow$ it's a fragment.
    *   *Check 4:* Does the only identifiable verb form end in *-ing*, *-ed*, or *-en* and is not preceded by a helping verb (e.g., *is*, *were*, *has been*)? If YES $\rightarrow$ it's a fragment.
    *   *Check 5:* Does the word group begin with a subordinating conjunction and express an incomplete thought? If YES $\rightarrow$ it's a fragment.
*   **Correction Methods for Fragments:**
    *   Add a missing subject.
    *   Add a missing predicate.
    *   Add both a subject and a predicate.
    *   Connect the dependent clause to an independent clause.
*   **Fragment Correction Examples:**
    *   *Fragment (Missing subject):* "Finished his assignment on time."
        *   *Corrected:* "The dedicated student finished his assignment on time."
    *   *Fragment (Missing predicate):* "The learned and noble English professor."
        *   *Corrected:* "The learned and noble English professor bravely read the book."
    *   *Fragment (Prepositional phrase missing subject and predicate):* "On the hill." / "On a dark and stormy night in late October."
        *   *Corrected:* "The small hedgehog sat on the hill." / "Olive slept on a dark and stormy night in late October."
    *   *Fragment (Unattached dependent clause):* "Which is one of my favorite movies."
        *   *Corrected:* "I watched Jurassic Park, which is one of my favorite movies."
    *   *Fragment (Unattached subordinate clause):* "Even though Olive enjoys playing in the snow."
        *   *Corrected:* "Even though Olive enjoys playing in the snow, she is scared of snowmen."
    *   *Fragment (Unattached subordinate clause):* "Because I like to read."
        *   *Corrected:* "I became an English professor because I like to read."
    *   *Fragment (Unattached subordinate clause):* "When she arrived home."
        *   *Corrected:* "She was happy to see Olive when she arrived home."

• Fused Sentences and Comma Splices:
  • Fused Sentence (Run-On Sentence): Occurs when two independent clauses are joined without the necessary heavy separators or coordinating punctuation placed between them.
  • Comma Splice: "A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined with only a comma, rather than with a semicolon or with a comma and a coordinating conjunction" (Messenger et al. 49–50).

*   **Diagnostic Flowchart for Errors of Combining (Henderson 332):**
    *   *Check 1:* Does one independent clause follow another one with no punctuation in between? If YES $\rightarrow$ you may have written a run-on sentence.
    *   *Check 2:* Have you separated one independent clause from another with only a comma? If YES $\rightarrow$ you may have written a comma splice.
    *   *Check 3:* Have you joined two independent clauses with a comma followed by a joining word that is not a coordinating conjunction (such as a conjunctive adverb)? If YES $\rightarrow$ you may have written a comma splice.

• Four Specific Ways to Correct Fused Sentences and Comma Splices:
  • Method 1: Separate into Two Sentences Using a Period (Heavy Separator):
    • Rule: Insert a period after the first independent clause and capitalize the second (Nelson et al. 57).
    • Fused: "Olive is intelligent she is adorable." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Olive is intelligent. She is adorable."
    • Comma Splice: "The squirrels lost the battle, their leader was sad." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "The squirrels lost the battle. Their leader was sad."
    • Comma Splice: "I read the story, I forget what happened." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "I read the story. I forget what happened."
  • Method 2: Connect Clauses with a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction:
    • Rule: Insert a comma and an appropriate coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) (Nelson et al. 58).
    • Fused: "Learning about grammar is boring I can't wait for this class to end." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Learning about grammar is boring, so I can't wait for this class to end."
    • Comma Splice: "Bob likes to read books, Sarah likes to watch movies." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Bob likes to read books, but Sarah likes to watch movies."
  • Method 3: Join with a Semicolon (Alone or with a Transitional Expression):
    • Rule: Use a semicolon alone, or a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb and a comma (Nelson et al. 58; Messenger et al. 159).
    • Fused: "Olive is tired of watching me prepare for class I bore her." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Olive is tired of watching me prepare for class; I bore her."
    • Comma Splice: "Bob likes to read books, Sarah likes to watch movies." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Bob likes to read books; however, Sarah likes to watch movies."
    • Comma Splice: "The squirrels lost the battle, their leader was sad." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "The squirrels lost the battle; accordingly, their leader was sad."
  • Method 4: Subordinate One Clause to Another (Create a Complex Sentence):
    • Rule: Make one independent clause dependent by prefixing a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.
    • Fused: "Olive is intelligent she is adorable." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Olive, who is intelligent, is adorable."
    • Comma Splice: "Grande Prairie is quite far north, the sun sets early in winter." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "Because Grande Prairie is quite far north, the sun sets early in winter."
    • Fused: "I love hedgehogs I respect and fear the squirrels." $\rightarrow$ Fixed: "While I love hedgehogs, I respect and fear the squirrels."

Active and Passive Voice

• Grammatical Voice Defined:

  • "Verbs have another quality besides tense (or time). Verbs also have voice, which is the quality of being either active or passive" (Nelson et al. 83).
  • Active Voice: Direct syntax where the subject of the sentence performs the action denoted by the verb.
    • Example 1: "Heather placed The Squirrel Companion on the table." (Who placed? Heather).
    • Example 2: "Olive is reluctantly watching the Nicolas Cage movie." (Who is watching? Olive).
  • Passive Voice: The grammatical subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb rather than performing it.
    • Example 1: "The Squirrel Companion was placed on the table."
    • Example 2: "The Nicolas Cage movie is reluctantly being watched."

• Syntactic Formula of the Passive Voice:

  • Passive voice requires an auxiliary form of the verb to be followed by a past participle:

$\text{Passive Verb Phrase} = \text{form of } \mathbf{be} + \text{Past Participle}$

*   **Auxiliary Forms of Be:** *am*, *are*, *is*, *was*, *were*, *being*, *been*.
*   **Regular vs. Irregular Participles:**
    *   *Regular Verbs:* Form both simple past and past participle with `-ed` (or `-d` if ending in `e`):
        *   *to call* $\rightarrow$ Simple Past: *called*; Present Participle: *calling*; Past Participle: *called*.
        *   *to work* $\rightarrow$ Simple Past: *worked*; Present Participle: *working*; Past Participle: *worked*.
    *   *Irregular Verbs:* Form simple past and past participle without adding `-ed` (often involving a vowel change):
        *   *to do* $\rightarrow$ Simple Past: *did*; Present Participle: *doing*; Past Participle: *done*.
        *   *to say* $\rightarrow$ Simple Past: *said*; Present Participle: *saying*; Past Participle: *said*.
*   *Examples of Passive Verb Phrases in Sentences:*
    *   "The door **was opened** by the clever raptor."
    *   "The exam **was written** by the sad students."
    *   "The cup of coffee **is being clutched** by the wise and powerful English instructor."

• Active and Passive Verb Tenses Paradigm:

*   *Simple Present:* Active: *writes* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *are written / is written*
*   *Present Progressive:* Active: *is writing* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *are being written / is being written*
*   *Simple Past:* Active: *wrote* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *were written / was written*
*   *Present Perfect:* Active: *has written* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *have been written / has been written*
*   *Future:* Active: *will write* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *will be written*
*   *Modals:* Active: *can write* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *can be written*
*   *Modals:* Active: *could write* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *could be written*
*   *Modals:* Active: *should write* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *should be written*
*   *Modals:* Active: *would have written* $\rightarrow$ Passive: *would have been written*

• Converting Passive Sentences to Active Voice:

  • Step 1: Identify who or what performs the action expressed by the verb. Look for the agent in a prepositional "by" phrase (e.g., by zombies, by angry squirrels), or infer the agent from context.
  • Step 2: Make that agent the grammatical subject of the sentence and alter the verb form to the active voice.
  • Conversions:
    • Passive: "The library was swarmed by vicious English professors." $\rightarrow$ Active: "Vicious English professors swarmed the library."
    • Passive: "The books are being read." $\rightarrow$ Active: "Squirrels are reading the books."
    • Passive: "Action will be taken." $\rightarrow$ Active: "Northwestern Polytechnic will take action."
    • Passive: "Assignments were submitted." $\rightarrow$ Active: "Tired students submitted their assignments."

• Stylistic Preference and Justified Uses of Passive Voice:

  • "Good writers use the active voice unless there is a specific reason to use the passive" (Nelson et al. 84).
  • Revising to ensure clarity fundamentally involves eliminating wordiness, using clear diction, and making use of the active voice.
  • Three Justified Situations for Passive Voice:
    1. The person or agent that performed the action is not known:
       • Example: "The name of the park was changed."
       • Example: "The window was broken."
    2. Placing emphasis on the entity affected by the action rather than the performer:
       • Example: "The library was stormed by an angry group of squirrels."
    3. Writing technical reports, scientific reports, or legal documents:
       • Example (Scientific): "The liquid was poured into a beaker and placed over a flame."
       • Example (Legal): "Appropriate action will be taken to uphold these laws."

Rules and Conventions of Apostrophe Usage

• Core Functions of the Apostrophe:

  • An apostrophe indicates either contraction or possession.

• Apostrophes in Contractions:

  • Used to mark the precise point where letters have been omitted:
    • $I + am \rightarrow \text{\textbf{I'm}}$
    • $we + will \rightarrow \text{\textbf{we'll}}$
    • $she + is \rightarrow \text{\textbf{she's}}$
    • $it + is \rightarrow \text{\textbf{it's}}$

• Apostrophes Showing Possession in Nouns:

  • Singular Nouns: Add an apostrophe and s ('s):
    • "the house's roof"
    • "Canada's capital"
    • "Heather's pen"
  • Plural Nouns Not Ending in S: Add an apostrophe and s ('s):
    • "the women's jobs"
    • "children's books"
  • Compound Nouns and Joint Ownership:
    • "To form the possessive of compound nouns, use 's after the last noun" (Messenger et al. 314).
      • "the prime minister's speech"
      • "Heather and Olive's home"
    • "If the nouns don't actually form a compound, each will need the 's" (Messenger et al. 314).
      • "Heather's and Olive's accounts of the party differed greatly."
  • Plural Nouns Ending in S: Add only an apostrophe ('):
    • "To indicate the possessive case of plural nouns ending in s, add only an apostrophe" (Messenger et al. 315).
    • Examples: "the rats' cheese" / "the managers' duties" / "the students' books" / "the girls' toys" (contrasted with singular: "the girl's toys").

• Singular Nouns Ending in S or S-Sound:

*   "You may correctly add an apostrophe and an s to form the possessive of singular nouns ending in s or an s-sound:"
    *   *a platypus's bill*
    *   *an index's usefulness*
    *   *the class's achievement*
    *   *Keats's poems*
*   *Stylistic Variation for Pronunciation Awkwardness:* Some writers prefer to add only an apostrophe if an extra syllable sounds awkward:
    *   *Achilles' heel*
    *   *for convenience' sake*
    *   *Moses' sons*
    *   *Bill Gates' Foundation*
*   *Acceptability of `'s`:* The `'s` is usually acceptable (*Achilles's heel*; *for convenience's sake*; *Moses's sons*; *Bill Gates's Foundation*).
*   *The Of-Phrase Alternative:* One can avoid awkwardness by showing possession with an of-phrase:
    *   *for the sake of convenience*
    *   *the sons of Moses*
    *   *the bill of a platypus*
    *   *the poems of Keats*

• Possessive Pronouns and Strict Prohibitions:
  • "…possessive pronouns are already possessive in form…" (Nelson et al. 34).
  • Rule: "Do not use apostrophes in possessive pronouns" (Nelson et al. 34–35).
  • Pluralization Prohibition: "Never use an apostrophe to make a word plural" (Nelson et al. 35).

*   **Proofreading Distinctions for Possessive Pronouns:**
    *   **its** (NOT *it's* — *it's* is the contraction for *it is* or *it has*)
    *   **theirs** (NOT *their's*)
    *   **whose** (NOT *who's* — *who's* is the contraction for *who is* or *who has*)
    *   **hers** (NOT *her's*)
    *   **ours** (NOT *our's*)
    *   **yours** (NOT *your's*)
*   **Applied Proofreading Cases:**
    *   "The bookstore held **its** annual sale." (*its* possessive pronoun; no apostrophe).
    *   "English professors pushed innocent bystanders out of the way as they rushed to buy Margaret **Atwood's** latest novel (among others)." (*Atwood's* singular possessive noun).
    *   "Store employees scattered and took refuge in the **children's** section." (*children's* irregular plural possessive noun).
    *   "One employee hid behind the **store's** cardboard cut-out of Harry Potter." (*store's* singular possessive noun).
    *   "The **employees'** manager was mysteriously absent; presumably, she was looking over last **week's** sales reports." (*employees'* plural possessive noun ending in s; *week's* singular possessive noun).
    *   "A particularly ferocious professor yelled that all of the books would be **hers**." (*hers* possessive pronoun; no apostrophe).
    *   "Heather and **Olive's** home filled with books that day." (*Heather and Olive's* joint possessive compound noun).