6.2 Causes and effects of the settlements of the west.
TOPIC 6.2: Causes and Effects of the Settlements of the West (1877-1898)
- Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the settlements of the West from 1877 to 1898. - Context: The period of Westward Expansion took place during Economic Development Period 6 (1865-1898).
Introduction to the West Post-Civil War
- After the Civil War, the West presented unique opportunities for American inventiveness and entrepreneurship, distinguishing itself from colonial times with new industries.
Settlement of the Last West
- Prior to 1860, the land between the Mississippi River and California was perceived as uninhabitable and suitable only for Native Americans and wildlife.
- This region was often referred to as the Great American Desert due to its arid conditions and lack of essential resources like water and timber.
- The plains were located at the 100th meridian, where rainfall was minimal, rendering it unsuitable for farming.
Transformation After 1865
- Post-1865, the notion of the “frontier of the past” dissipated with the disappearance of buffalo herds. - The landscape transitioned to include homesteads, ranches, railroads, and new towns.
- Territories such as Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma remained as the last settlements.
- The post-Civil War West symbolized the promises of democratic individualism, economic opportunity, and personal freedom, which were central to the American dream.
Economic Growth of the West
A. Mineral Deposits - Mining Frontier
- Following the Civil War, valuable mineral discoveries continued to draw people westward.
- The excitement of gold rushes, such as the dramatic events of 1849, was repeatedly witnessed over the subsequent thirty years.
- In Nevada, the discovery of the Comstock Lode of gold and silver near Gold Hill in the late 1850s resulted in profits exceeding $300 million by excavating shafts into the mountainside.
- The population influx led Nevada to achieve territorial status in 1861 and statehood in 1864.
- Colorado experienced similar events with gold and silver discoveries near Central City in 1859, Leadville in the 1870s, and Cripple Creek in the 1890s; Colorado became the Centennial State in 1876.
- The nature of mining shifted from individual prospectors in the 1840s to larger scale operations run by companies, requiring significant investment.
B. Cowboys - Cattle Frontier
- Cattle ranching became integral to the Far West's economy, utilizing the vast grasslands of the Great Plains for grazing.
- An estimated 5 million cattle were present on the Texas ranges by the end of the Civil War, with increasing demand in Eastern and Upper Mississippi markets.
- The challenge was to transport cattle from grazing areas to railroad centers, particularly in Kansas, facilitating delivery to Texas. Joseph McCoy pioneered the first stockyards for cattle.
- Cowboys began long drives, herding cattle, earning only $1 per day, amidst dangerous conditions. - They employed Mexican techniques for branding and roundups, utilizing gear like saddles, leather chaps (chaparreras), and spurs.
- About 30% of the 40,000 cowboys after the Civil War were Mexican (Vaqueros) or African American.
- The decline of cattle drives occurred in the 1880s due to a severe blizzard that wiped out 90% of cattle from 1885-1886 and the introduction of barbed wire by homesteaders. Wealthy ranchers also initiated the breeding of scientifically improved cattle.
C. Transcontinental Railroad
- The establishment of transcontinental railroads significantly contributed to the economic development of the West.
- The first transcontinental railroad resulted from federal land grants designed to connect California with the rest of the nation. Construction began in Nebraska and California, culminating in a meeting point in Utah in May 1869. —proposed by Stephen Douglas
- By 1881 a second route was introduced, leading to a total of five major transcontinental lines by the century's end, linking dispersed areas of the country.
- The rail network expanded from approximately 35,000 miles in 1865 to nearly 200,000 miles by 1897, thereby connecting raw materials to factories and markets, creating a national economic marketplace.
- Negative outcomes included costly endeavors leading to business failures, environmental degradation from gold rushes, and significant suffering among Native American populations.
Government Role in the West
A. Financing the Railroads
- Railroads were primarily constructed by private companies funded through the sale of bonds to investors both domestic and foreign.
- A major legislative act was introduced in 1850 by Senator Stephen Douglas, which provided public land grants to incentivize the construction of a north-south railroad compared to the east-west lines.
- The 1862 Pacific Railroads Act, signed by President Lincoln, facilitated federal subsidies and land grants for railroads, which was later supported by subsequent acts in 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866. These measures significantly reduced construction costs, encouraging rapid railroad expansion and stimulating economic growth across the western territories.
Over the next 20 years, these federal land grants amounted to 129 million acres primarily awarded to transcontinental railroad firms.
- Railroads additionally received $707 million in cash from various levels of government to support their construction.
B. Financing Agriculture - Farming Frontier
- In 1862, Congress enacted the Homestead Act, subdividing 2.5 million acres into 160-acre homesteads.
- Settlers could acquire these lands for a minor fee by residing and improving the land for a period of five years.
- Agricultural advancements led to increased production, with notable challenges for settlers due to harsh realities on the homesteads.
- Innovations, such as James Oliver's “sodbuster” chilled-iron plow (1868), significantly eased the labor-intensive process of farming.
Agricultural Challenges and Innovations
Problems and Solutions in Agriculture
- Homesteaders faced several issues:
- Extreme weather conditions.
- Water scarcity, leading to the use of windmills for drilling.
- Lack of wood for building fences, mitigated by the invention of barbed wire.
- Insufficient land area (160 acres) relative to the demands of farming.
- High costs of machinery compounded by falling crop prices created a tough lifestyle.
-Approximately two-thirds of homesteaders abandoned their claims by 1900 due to these hardships. - Those who succeeded often utilized dry farming techniques and the planting of resilient crops (e.g., Russian wheat) and benefited from government-funded irrigation developments.
- Mechanization advancements in farming equipment reduced some labor hardships but added financial burdens for farmers.
-Commercialization developed which put smaller farmers out of business.
Innovations in Cattle Transportation
- Before the introduction of refrigerated cars in the 1860s, cattle shipped to the East often arrived dead or significantly weight-reduced.
- G.H. Hammond's air-cooled beef car (1869) and Gustavus Swift's mechanical refrigerated car (1877) revolutionized beef transportation, enabling Midwest slaughter and distribution across the country without spoilage.
- Noteworthy innovations also included Joseph Glidden's invention of barbed wire (1873), allowing ranchers to fence properties economically.
Farmers' Grievances and Organization
A. Rising Debts and Financial Stress
- By 1900, the farming community experienced critical financial troubles due to escalating debts, with only 37% of farms still operational compared to 60% previously.
B. Overproduction and Low Prices
- The 1880s experienced overproduction, leading to price declines in agricultural goods, causing widespread economic hardship for around 6 million farming families.
- For context, the price of wheat plummeted from $1.60 per bushel post-Civil War to 49 cents by the 1890s.
- Commercial agriculture grew, prioritizing cash crops while smaller farms struggled to compete.
- Ongoing cost pressures from monopolistic corporations, high taxes on properties, and protective tariffs exacerbated farmers' conditions.
C. Credit Accessibility Issues
- Farmers grappled with limited credit avenues from banks and loan companies, often entangled in loans with exorbitant interest rates, as high as 25%.
D. Railroads' Role in Grievances
- Farmers expressed significant grievances against railroads, emphasizing inequitable freight charge structures.
- Individual farmers often lacked access to freight rebates available to larger corporations, facing elevated shipping costs compared to competitive non-agricultural goods.
Farmers' Alliances and Response
A. Emergence of Farmers' Alliances
- A consciousness spurred local, regional, and national cooperative actions among farmers to combat grievances in the late 19th century.
- The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry formed in 1867, reaching 1.5 million members by 1874, advocating for regulated railroad and warehouse rates.
- Following the Grange’s waning influence, other Farmers’ Alliances emerged, focusing on political action and fostering a communal spirit among farmers. - By 1890, these alliances included around 1.5 million members across the U.S., along with a Colored Farmers' National Alliance claiming 1 million members, with gender and age inclusivity in their membership policies, notably empowering women.
B. Ocala Platform
- In 1890, the National Alliance convened in Ocala, Florida, formulating the Ocala Platform intending to address farmers' issues in relation to banks and industries:
- Direct election of U.S. Senators.
- Reduction of tariffs.
- Introduction of a progressive income tax.
- Development of a federally regulated banking system.
- Proposal to increase the money supply through treasury notes and silver to foster inflation and subsequently raise crop pricing.
Summary of Key Takeaways
- The post-Civil War era saw significant government support for infrastructure, catalyzing new commercial opportunities.
- The interplay between mineral discoveries, the expansion of railroads, and government intervention promoted substantial economic growth, birthing new communities.
- Advances in machinery transformed agricultural practices, contributing to increased production but ultimately led to falling food prices. - Farmers organized cooperatively to confront growing market consolidation and dependency on rail transport, advocating for legislative changes and improvements in the agricultural economy.