Module 13
Overview
This module explores the first Americans and the complex cultures that developed in Mesoamerica, the Andes, and North America before European contact.
Essential Question: How did early American civilizations influence future societies and cultures before the arrival of Europeans?
Lesson 1: The Earliest Americans
Big Idea: The cultures of the first Americans, including social organization, developed in ways similar to other early cultures.
Why It Matters Now: The Americas’ first inhabitants developed the basis for later American civilizations.
Human settlement in the Americas is relatively recent compared to other parts of the world but followed a similar pattern, starting with hunting and evolving to farming.
A Land Bridge
The Americas span from the Arctic Circle to Antarctica, connected by a land mass which narrows at Panama.
Thousands of years ago, a land bridge called Beringia connected the Americas to Asia.
Peopling the Americas
The first Americans arrived towards the end of the last Ice Age (1.9 million years ago to about 10,000 BC).
Glaciers locked up water, lowering sea levels and creating a land corridor between Asia and Alaska.
Siberian hunters followed migrating animals across Beringia into North America.
Scholars debate when this migration began, ranging from as early as 30,000 BC to as late as 10,000 BC.
Discovery of spearheads from 9500 BC near Clovis, New Mexico, was once considered the earliest evidence.
More recent findings, such as at Monte Verde, Chile (10,500 BC), and Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania (17,000 BC), suggest earlier habitation.
Some scholars propose people may have traveled by boat from Asia along the Pacific Coast.
Hunters and Gatherers
The earliest Americans were hunters, with mammoths being a primary prey.
A mammoth could provide meat, hide, and bones for food, clothing, shelters, and tools.
As large animals became extinct, hunters turned to smaller prey, fishing, and gathering plants and fruits.
These early people moved regularly in search of food, living in caves or temporary shelters.
The end of the Ice Age (12,000 to 10,000 years ago) led to the melting of glaciers and the disappearance of Beringia under the Bering Strait.
Humans adapted to various environments across the Americas, developing unique ways of life.
Agriculture Creates a New Way of Life
Early Americans began experimenting with farming, which dramatically changed their way of life.
Around 7000 BC, in central Mexico, people started relying on wild edible plants and later cultivated them.
By 5000 BC, they grew squashes, gourds, beans, avocados, and chilies.
By 3400 BC, maize (corn) became the most important crop. A family of three could grow enough corn in four months to feed themselves for a long time.
People settled in permanent villages like those in the Tehuacan Valley, and agriculture spread across the Americas.
Advanced farming methods included creating small islands in swamps and shallow lakes for cultivation.
Agriculture led to a reliable food supply, population growth, settled communities, and specialization of labor.
Social classes emerged, and societies became more complex, setting the stage for advanced civilizations.
Lesson 2: Early Mesoamerican Civilizations
Big Idea: The Olmec created the Americas’ first civilization, which in turn influenced later civilizations.
Why It Matters Now: Later American civilizations relied on the technology and achievements of earlier cultures to make advances.
The story of developed civilizations in the Americas begins in Mesoamerica, stretching south from central Mexico to northern Honduras.
The Olmec
The Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BC in the jungles of southern Mexico, influencing neighboring groups and later civilizations.
Often called Mesoamerica’s “mother culture.”
The Rise of Olmec Civilization
Around 1860, a stone sculpture of an enormous head was discovered in southeastern Mexico, indicating the presence of the Olmec civilization.
The Olmec thrived from approximately 800 to 400 BC along the Gulf Coast of Mexico.
The region's hot, humid environment had advantages such as salt, tar, fine clay, wood, rubber, and stone for tools and monuments.
Up to 100 inches of rain fell every year.
The rivers provided means of transport, and the flood plains offered fertile land for farming.
The oldest site, San Lorenzo, dates back to around 1150 BC.
Olmec Society
Archaeologists discovered earthen mounds, courtyards, pyramids, and stone monuments at San Lorenzo.
Giant stone heads (weighing up to 44 tons) may have represented Olmec rulers.
La Venta rose around 900 BC, featuring a 100-foot-high mound (Great Pyramid), possibly as a tomb or religious center.
The Olmec worshiped nature gods, especially the jaguar spirit depicted in sculptures and carvings.
Trade and Commerce
The Olmec directed a large trading network throughout Mesoamerica, with goods traveling as far as Mexico City and Honduras.
Raw materials reached San Lorenzo from faraway regions, boosting the Olmec economy and spreading their influence.
Decline of the Olmec
Olmec civilization collapsed for reasons not fully understood.
San Lorenzo was destroyed around 900 BC, and La Venta fell around 400 BC.
Possible causes include outside invaders or the Olmec destroying their own monuments.
Zapotec Civilization Arises
The Zapotec developed an advanced society to the southwest of the Olmec in what is now Oaxaca.
They showed traces of Olmec influence but built a unique civilization.
Oaxaca Valley had fertile soil, a mild climate, and enough rainfall to support agriculture.
By 1000 BC, San José Mogote emerged as the main power, with stone platforms, temples, and monumental sculptures.
By 500 BC, they developed early forms of writing and a calendar system.
The Zapotec Flourish at Monte Albán
Around 500 BC, the Zapotec built Monte Albán, the first real urban center in the Americas.
By 200 BC, Monte Albán had a population of around 15,000, eventually reaching almost 25,000.
From AD 250 to AD 700, Monte Albán was impressive, with a giant plaza, pyramids, temples, palaces, and an observatory.
The city also contained stone carvings of corpses, showing Olmec influence.
The Early Mesoamericans’ Legacy
Both the Zapotec and Olmec civilizations influenced later Mesoamerican civilizations.
The Olmec Leave Their Mark
The Olmec influenced the Maya, with Olmec art styles seen in pottery and sculpture of later peoples.
Future Mesoamerican societies copied the Olmec pattern of urban design.
The Olmec left behind planned ceremonial centers, ritual ball games, and an elite ruling class.
Their descendants may have influenced later glyph writing.
Zapotec Contributions
The Zapotec left behind a hieroglyphic writing system and a calendar system based on the movement of the sun.
They are noted as the Americas’ first city builders, combining ceremonial grandeur with residential living space.
This style influenced the development of future urban centers.
Lesson 3: Early Civilizations of the Andes
Big Idea: In the Andes Mountains, various groups created flourishing civilizations.
Why It Matters Now: Like the early Andean civilizations, people today must adapt to their environment in order to survive.
Societies Arise in the Andes
The Andes Mountains stretch about 4,500 miles down the western edge of South America.
South America’s first civilizations emerged in the northern Andes region, in Peru.
Settlements on the Coastal Plain
Peru presented a harsh environment with steep, rocky mountains and poor soil.
A narrow coastal plain lies between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean, with river valleys allowing for settlements.
Between 3600 and 2500 BC, people began to establish villages along the Pacific coast.
Around 3000 BC, farming began, and by 1800 BC, thriving communities existed along the coast.
The Chavín Period
The Chavín culture flourished from around 900 BC to 200 BC.
Archaeologists named the culture after a major ruin, Chavín de Huántar.
Chavín culture spread quickly across much of northern and central Peru.
The Chavín were primarily a religious civilization.
Spread of art styles and religious images shows the powerful influence of this culture.
The Chavín are believed to have established certain patterns that helped unify Andean culture.
Like the Olmec in Mesoamerica, the Chavín may have acted as a “mother culture” in South America.
Other Andean Civilizations Flourish
Around the time Chavín culture declined, other civilizations were emerging in Peru.
First the Nazca and then the Moche built societies that flourished in the Andes.
Nazca Achievements
The Nazca culture flourished along the southern coast of Peru from around 200 BC to AD 600.
Developed extensive irrigation systems, including underground canals.
Known for textiles, pottery, and the Nazca Lines.
Moche Culture
Lasted from about AD 100 to AD 700 on the northern coast of Peru.
Built impressive irrigation systems to water crops.
Moche tombs revealed wealth and brilliant ceramic art.
Pottery depicts scenes from everyday life, providing a wealth of detail about Moche life.
Lesson 4: North American Societies
Big Idea: Complex North American societies were linked to each other through culture and economics.
Why It Matters Now: Traditions and ideas from these cultures became part of the cultures of North America.
Complex Societies in the West
Early North American cultures were less developed than those of South America and Mesoamerica.
They created no great empires but did construct magnificent buildings and conduct long-distance trade.
Cultures of Abundance
Pacific Northwest tribes (Kwakiutl, Nootka, and Haida) thrived on abundant resources from the sea and coastal forests.
Differences in wealth created social classes, displayed in an elaborate ceremony called the potlatch.
Accomplished Builders
Desert lands of the Southwest were farmed by the Hohokam, who used irrigation.
The Anasazi built cliff dwellings on mesas or in canyons.
By the AD 900s, the Anasazi were living in pueblos, villages of large, apartment-style compounds made of stone and adobe.
The largest Anasazi pueblo, Pueblo Bonito, housed about 1,000 people and contained more than 600 rooms.
The Anasazi relied on human labor to quarry sandstone from the canyon walls, constructing walls up to five stories high.
Kivas, underground ceremonial chambers, were used for religious practices.
Many Anasazi pueblos were abandoned around 1200, possibly due to a prolonged drought.
Descendants of the Anasazi, pueblo peoples such as the Hopi and Zuni, continued their customs.
They traded pottery, woven blankets, corn, and farm products with plains Indians for bison meat and hides.
Mound Builders and Other Woodland Cultures
East of the Mississippi River, the Mound Builders created unique traditions.
The Adena culture (around 700 BC) built huge earthen mounds for burials.
The Hopewell culture also built burial mounds, some of which may have been used for other purposes.
The Mississippian culture (AD 800 until the arrival of Europeans) created thriving villages based on farming and trade.
Cahokia, the leading site of Mississippian culture, had a population of perhaps 30,000 between 1000 and 1200.
The Mississippian lands were located in a crossroads region with easy transportation on the Mississippi and Ohio rivers.
Eastern Woodland Tribes Build Alliances
The eastern woodlands tribes developed a variety of cultures and often clashed with each other over land.
The Iroquois, a group of tribes speaking related languages, formed the Iroquois League to promote joint defense and cooperation.
Cultural Connections
Trade, similar religious beliefs, shared social patterns, and the spread of ideas connected early North Americans.
The Columbia River was a lively marketplace for the Chinook people.
Most Native Americans believed that the world around them was filled with nature spirits and recognized a number of sacred spirits.
They used the land but tried to alter it as little as possible, considering it sacred.
The family was the basis for social organization, with families organized into clans descended from a common ancestor.
Totems, natural objects, were used as symbols of unity and helped define behaviors and social relationships.
Lesson 5: Maya Kings and Cities
Big Idea: The Maya developed a highly complex civilization based on city-states and elaborate religious practices.
Why It Matters Now: Descendants of the Maya still occupy the same territory.
Maya Create City-States
The Maya homeland stretched from southern Mexico into northern Central America, including highland and lowland regions.
By AD 250, Maya culture had developed into a flourishing civilization.
Urban Centers
The Classic Period of Maya civilization (AD 250 to 900) saw the construction of spectacular cities like Tikal, Copán, and Chichén Itzá.
Each city-state was ruled by a god-king and served as a center for religious ceremonies and trade.
Maya cities featured giant pyramids, temples, palaces, and elaborate stone carvings.
Each city featured a ball court where a game with religious and political significance was played.
Agriculture and Trade Support Cities
Maya city-states were linked through alliances and trade.
Cities exchanged local products such as salt, flint, feathers, shells, and honey.
Agriculture, particularly the growing of maize, beans, and squash, provided the basis for Maya life.
The Maya developed sophisticated farming methods, including raised beds and hillside terraces.
Kingdoms Built on Dynasties
Successful farming led to the accumulation of wealth and the development of social classes.
The noble class (priests and warriors) was at the top, followed by merchants and skilled artisans, with the peasant majority at the bottom.
The Maya king was regarded as a holy figure, with the position being hereditary.
Religion Shapes Maya Life
The Maya believed in many gods (gods of corn, death, rain, and war).
They worshiped their gods in various ways, including offerings of food, flowers, and incense, and sometimes human sacrifice.
Math and Religion
Maya religious beliefs led to the development of the calendar, mathematics, and astronomy.
They developed a 260-day religious calendar and a 365-day solar calendar.
The Maya calculated the solar year with impressive precision.
They used a math system that included the concept of zero.
Written Language Preserves History
The Maya developed the most advanced writing system in the ancient Americas, using glyphs to record historical events.
They recorded glyphs in stone or bark-paper books known as codices, of which only three have survived.
Historical and custom accounts by Maya peoples also exist after the arrival of the Spanish (e.g., the Popol Vuh).
Mysterious Maya Decline
In the late 800s, the Maya suddenly abandoned many of their cities.
Invaders from the north, the Toltec, moved into the lands occupied by the Maya.
The high civilization of Maya cities disappeared.
Causes included warfare, trade disruption, economic hardship, population growth, overfarming, food shortages, famine, and disease.
Lesson 6: The Aztecs Control Central Mexico
Big Idea: Through alliances and conquest, the Aztecs created a powerful empire in Mexico.
Why It Matters Now: This time period saw the origins of one of the 20th century’s most populous cities, Mexico City.
The Valley of Mexico
The Valley of Mexico served as the home base of several powerful cultures, including Teotihuacán and the Toltecs.
An Early City-State
Teotihuacán was the first major civilization of central Mexico.
At its peak, it had a population between 150,000 and 200,000.
The city featured a central avenue lined with pyramids dedicated to various gods, including the Pyramid of the Sun.
Teotihuacán became the center of a thriving trade network, with obsidian as its most valuable trade item.
Historians believe the decline was due either to an invasion by outside forces or conflict among the city’s ruling classes.
Toltecs Take Over
Around 900, the Toltecs rose to power and ruled over the heart of Mexico from their capital at Tula.
They built pyramids and temples and carved tall pillars in the shape of armed warriors.
The Toltecs were warlike and worshiped a fierce war god who demanded blood and human sacrifice.
Topiltzin tried to change the Toltec religion, calling on the people to end human sacrifice and worship Quetzalcoatl.
Followers of the war god rebelled, forcing Topiltzin and his followers into exile.
After Topiltzin’s exile, Toltec power began to decline.
The Aztec Empire
The Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico around AD 1200.
In 1428, they joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan to form the Triple Alliance, which became the leading power in the Valley of Mexico.
By the early 1500s, they controlled a vast empire that covered some 80,000 square miles.
The Aztecs based their power on military conquest and tribute from conquered subjects.
They exercised loose control over the empire, demanding tribute in the form of gold, maize, cacao beans, cotton, jade, and other products.
Nobles Rule Aztec Society
At the height of the Aztec Empire, military leaders held great power, making up the noble class with government officials and priests.
There were two other broad classes: commoners and enslaved persons.
The emperor sat atop the Aztec social pyramid, holding absolute power.
Tenochtitlán: A Planned City
By the early 1500s, Tenochtitlán had become an extraordinary urban center, with a population of between 200,000 and 400,000.
Aztec engineers built causeways to connect the island to the mainland.
Canals and broad avenues connected the city center with outlying residential districts.
The market of Tlatelolco served as the economic heart of the city.
Fruits and vegetables were grown on chinampas, farm plots built on the marshy fringes of the lake.
At the center of the city was a walled complex filled with palaces, temples, and government buildings, including the Great Temple.
Religion Rules Aztec Life
Religion played a major role in Aztec society, with hundreds of temples and religious structures dedicated to around 1,000 gods.
Aztec religious practices centered on elaborate public ceremonies designed to communicate with the gods and win their favor.
Sacrifices for the Sun God
The most important rituals involved the sun god, Huitzilopochtli, who needed the nourishment of human blood.
Aztec priests practiced human sacrifice on a massive scale, with prisoners of war being the preferred victims.
Problems in the Aztec Empire
In 1502, Montezuma II was crowned emperor, and the Aztec Empire began to weaken.
Montezuma II called for even more tribute and sacrifice, leading to unrest and rebellion.
The arrival of the Spanish coincided with the legend of Quetzalcoatl, causing anxiety.
Lesson 7: The Inca Create a Mountain Empire
Big Idea: The Inca built a vast empire supported by taxes, governed by a bureaucracy, and linked by extensive road systems.
Why It Matters Now: The Incan system of government was similar to some socialist governments in the 20th century.
The Inca Build an Empire
The Inca originally lived in a high plateau of the Andes and settled on fertile lands in the Valley of Cuzco by the 1200s.
They believed that the Incan ruler was descended from the sun god, Inti.
Pachacuti Builds an Empire
In 1438, Pachacuti took the throne and conquered all of Peru, then moved into neighboring lands.
By 1500, the Inca ruled an empire that stretched 2,500 miles along the western coast of South America.
The Inca called this empire “Land of the Four Quarters.”
Pachacuti used diplomacy and military force to conquer lands, often offering honorable surrender before attacking.
Incan Government Creates Unity
To control the huge empire, the rulers divided their territory into manageable units governed by a central bureaucracy.
The Inca imposed a single official language, Quechua, and founded schools to teach Incan ways.
Incan Cities Show Government Presence
The Inca built many cities in conquered areas, with the architecture of government buildings remaining consistent throughout the empire.
Cuzco was the splendid capital city with temples, plazas, and palaces.
The Inca were masterful engineers and stonemasons.
Incan Government
The Incan state exercised almost total control over economic and social life, regulating the production and distribution of goods.
The Incan social system was based on the ayllu, or extended family group, undertaking tasks too big for a single family.
The Inca incorporated the ayllu structure into a governing system based on the decimal system.
The main demand the Incan state placed on its subjects was for tribute, usually in the form of labor (mita).
Historians have compared the Incan system to a type of socialism or a modern welfare state.
Public Works Projects
The Inca had an ambitious public works program, including the Incan road system.
A 14,000-mile-long network of roads and bridges spanned the empire.
A system of runners, chasquis traveled these roads, carrying messages from one end of the empire to the other.
Government Record-Keeping
The Inca never developed a writing system but created an accounting device known as quipu to record data.
Religion Supports the State
The Inca focused on key nature spirits such as the moon, the stars, and thunder.
The primary Incan god was a creator god called Viracocha.
The sun god, Inti, was also important, and Incan rulers were considered descendants of Inti.
Religious Practices
Incan priests led sun-worship services, assisted by young women known as mamakuna.
Young men, known as yamacuna, also served as full-time workers for the state and in religious activities.
Sacrifice of llamas and exchange of goods were part of the religious activities.
Great Cities
The Temple of the Sun in Cuzco was heavily decorated in gold.
Machu Picchu may have served a ceremonial purpose or been an estate of Pachacuti.
Discord in the Empire
After the death of Huayna Capac, the empire was split between his sons, Atahualpa and Huascar.
A bitter civil war followed, tearing apart the empire.
Taking advantage of Incan weakness, the Spanish would soon divide and conquer the empire.
Here are the achievements of each civilization in more detail:
Olmec:
Influenced the Maya: Olmec art styles can be seen in the pottery and sculptures of later Maya peoples, demonstrating a cultural exchange and influence.
Urban Design: Future Mesoamerican societies adopted the Olmec pattern of urban design, indicating the Olmec were pioneers in urban planning.
Ceremonial Centers and Ball Games: The Olmec left behind planned ceremonial centers and ritual ball games, which became integral parts of later Mesoamerican cultures.
Glyph Writing: It is believed that their descendants may have influenced later glyph writing systems, highlighting their contribution to written communication.
Zapotec:
Hieroglyphic Writing System: The Zapotec developed a hieroglyphic writing system, showcasing their advanced intellectual capabilities and enabling record-keeping and communication.
Calendar System: They created a calendar system based on the movement of the sun, illustrating their understanding of astronomy and time.
First City Builders: The Zapotec are noted as the Americas’ first city builders, combining ceremonial grandeur with residential living space, setting a precedent for future urban development.
Influence on Urban Centers: Their style influenced the development of future urban centers, demonstrating the lasting impact of their architectural and urban planning innovations.
Chavín:
Art Styles and Religious Images: The spread of art styles and religious images shows the powerful influence of this culture, suggesting a wide-reaching impact on the cultural and religious practices of the region.
Unifying Andean Culture: They are believed to have established certain patterns that helped unify Andean culture, indicating their role in shaping the cultural identity of the Andes.
Nazca:
Irrigation Systems: They developed extensive irrigation systems, including underground canals, which allowed them to thrive in an otherwise arid environment.
Textiles and Pottery: They were known for their intricate textiles and pottery, showcasing their artistic skills and craftsmanship.
Nazca Lines: They are famous for the Nazca Lines, giant geoglyphs etched into the desert landscape, which remain a subject of mystery and intrigue.
Moche:
Irrigation Systems: The Moche built impressive irrigation systems to water crops, highlighting their engineering skills and agricultural expertise.
Ceramic Art: Moche tombs revealed wealth and brilliant ceramic art, demonstrating their artistic achievements and societal wealth.
Depictions of Daily Life: Their pottery depicts scenes from everyday life, providing a wealth of detail about Moche society, culture, and customs.
Anasazi:
Cliff Dwellings: They built cliff dwellings on mesas or in canyons, showcasing their architectural ingenuity and ability to adapt to challenging environments.
Pueblos: They lived in pueblos, villages of large, apartment-style compounds made of stone and adobe, which provided communal living spaces and defensive structures.
Pueblo Bonito: Their largest pueblo, Pueblo Bonito, housed about 1,000 people and contained more than 600 rooms, demonstrating their capacity for large-scale construction and community planning.
Mississippian:
Farming and Trade: They created thriving villages based on farming and trade, indicating their economic and social progress.
Maya:
Sophisticated Farming Methods: The Maya developed sophisticated farming methods, including raised beds and hillside terraces, which allowed them to sustain a large population.
Calendar Systems: They developed a 260-day religious calendar and a 365-day solar calendar, demonstrating their advanced understanding of astronomy and mathematics.
Mathematical System: They used a math system that included the concept of zero, showcasing their intellectual and scientific achievements.
Writing System: They developed the most advanced writing system in the ancient Americas, using glyphs to record historical events, marking significant cultural milestones.
Aztecs:
Causeways: They built causeways to connect the island to the mainland, demonstrating their engineering prowess and ability to overcome geographical challenges.
Canals and Avenues: They created canals and broad avenues that connected the city center with outlying residential districts, facilitating transportation and communication.
Chinampas: They grew fruits and vegetables on chinampas, farm plots built on the marshy fringes of the lake, showcasing their innovative agricultural techniques.
Inca:
Central Bureaucracy: To control the huge empire, the rulers divided their territory into manageable units governed by a central bureaucracy, marking their skill in governance.
Official Language: The Inca imposed a single official language, Quechua, and founded schools to teach Incan ways, promoting cultural unity and assimilation.
Consistent Architecture: The Incas built many cities in conquered areas, with the architecture of government buildings remaining consistent throughout the empire, indicating their centralized control and architectural standardization.
Master