Essay Ideas

Pendle

Causes:

Social/religious Conditions

Religious tensions, Lancashire viewed as susceptible to Catholicism, reputation for recusants, reformation less impactful, Gunpowder Plot 1604, witches accused of plotting to blow up Lancashire Jail with gunpowder at Malkin Tower, BUT only isolated instances of religious transgression eg 2 Catholics found hiding at Henry Standen’s house but not acted on by church courts 1600 George Moore credited two Puritan Ministers with ending possession, older witches charged with using spells based on corrupted versions of old prayers, closing of Whalley Abbey leading to the dominance of Puritan gentry as could take over the land, turn of 17th century attempted to clamp down on drunkenness and reduce strength of ale served around Pendle Forest BUT white magic present in over 100 court cases, however normal part of local life, Salmesbury witches let off as convinced judge victims of a Catholic plot

Economic Conditions

Population increase, tenants on Pendle Forest population of 100 originally grew to 1,620 by 1650, scarcity of resources, Pendle took place across a time of growing economic tensions due to rapid population growth, not supported as Whalley Parish 10,000 population, 180 sqm, Enclosure in a pastoral economy, limited arable farming, strong cloth trade, Chattox still carding wood for wife of James Robinson well into 70s in 1606, agriculture unreliable, cow cost £3, expensive, 6 months wages, John Nutter's cow bewitched to death, tenants faced threat of eviction Land system, 1507, Cattle farms no longer leased to tenants on an informal basis, fixed rents and entry fines, since 1507 rent increase of 39%, non copyholders had to pay forest entry fines, 1609 copyholders expected to pay 12 years rent to confirm rights and privileges, many forced to sell or morgage parts of land, subtenants rents 25x higher on average than copyholders, contracts often a year or less, Demdike and Chattox fall out over theft of clothing and gain from Alizon Device (granddaughter of Demdike) worth 20 shillings, Nutter’s accusation based on the fact that his brother threatened to evict Chattox + Redfearnes, illegal subtenants and died soon after, then father

Legal Authorities/Factors

1604 Witchcraft Act, Conjouring of spirits + familiars made a prosecutable offence, promoted pact with Devil, Alizon - black dog familiar used to harm John Law, Nowell, Decision to wait for Assize courts in August instead of dealing with matter on a local level, decision to investigate following the meeting at Malkin Tower, use of torture - previous case of Edmund Hartley, accused after 2 children he looked after became sick never blew up as no torture used, Alice Nutter a Catholic widow, Nowell’s strong anti recusancy beliefs Bromley/Atham (+ James) - Decision to accept child and spectral evidence as outlined in Daemonologie, desire to appease James, both high profile Puritan gentry members, established political careers, former MPs for Bridgenorth (Bromley) and Bramber (Altham), Altham knighted 1605, Bromley 1610, educated as a Calvinist, role as mediator for Scotland-England Union proposals, James head of judiciary

Salem

Causes:

Economic Conditions:

Navigation Act 1663 - All goods had to be trans-shipped through England first, duties payed, reduced amount of money and goods flowing into the colony, draining its wealth and worsening the impact of the Indian Wars BUT act had been in place for a long time and, though there had been 27 executed, execution rate of 25%, 100 cases, first execution in 1647, clearly not a catalyst

Authorities - Andros’ economic policy, introduced new taxes, especially import and export duties, severe resentment created as no previous taxes, necessary as colony draining English funds, 1691 William’s Massachusetts Charter, property-based electorate, not religion, officials appointed by Crown, not elected, governor could block laws passed by council, ,

War - 1/10 all military age men killed in First Indian War, in Second Indian War half of new England towns attacked, Springfield burned to ground, taxes rose under Andros in 1580s as colonists asked for English military assistance BUT new towns being established, pop. growth rate 3% per year

Salem Town vs Salem Village - Village where most accusers from, Putnams, wanted separation, prominent family, heavily involved in accusations, village largely agricultural, made up of dedicated Puritans, Salem town more cosmopolitan, Porters, richest family, opposed separation due to business interests BUT could be blamed more on religious + economic factors in Salem Village than role of individual families, families/accusations as simply products of conditions

Fed into religious and political resistance as imposition of what appeared to be economic sanctions upon the colony only drove zealous Puritan fears of outside influence further, leading to the unrest that caused the trials.

Consequences of War

Economic - 1/10 all military age men killed in First Indian War, in Second Indian War half of new England towns attacked, Springfield burned to ground, taxes rose under Andros in 1580s as colonists asked for English military assistance BUT new towns being established, pop. growth rate 3% per year

Social/religious - Natives as devil worshippers, fears of natives, Mercy Lewis 8 when parents killed in a native attack, Cotton Mather’s Memorable Providences - Indians described as pagans, allied with Catholic France and Spain, 9 years war part of Second Indian War, frequent attacks and deaths, seen as preventing creation of a godly society BUT pre-exisiting zealotry of Massachusetts Puritanism, Mayflower - 10,000 emigrated between 1630 and 1642 to escape Charles’ + Laud’s policies and punishment of radicals, 1629 Massachusetts Bay colony on Puritan principles, fears of the devil’s presence on earth, preachers critical of magic, first execution in 1647, 100 accused pre Salem, Fears of women, example of Eve, more corruptible, tempted by Devil

Fed into pre-existing religious fear and unrest, sense of a constant threat, worked alongside economic factors to worsen their impact but cannot stand alone as a causal factor in terms of either economy or religion as simply cannot be blamed for religious conditions, though may have worsened them, and also counter evidence to impact of war economically makes it less viable.

Political Authorities/Conditions

Parris - Sermons before Salem, wicked men in the community, chuch under siege by Devil, connection to Mathers, baptised in their Church in ‘89, decision to prosecute Tituba following the witch cake’s failure, role in her confession, possibly beat her, caused the spread as she confessed to signing the devil’s book, flying through the air on a pole, named other witches

Cotton Mather - Political leader of the community, role in April 1689 revolt against Andros, rebel leader, involved in negotiating the Massachusetts Charter 1691, Religious leader, 400+ books, 3rd gen colonist, family of respected Ministers, went to Harvard, Memorable Providences on Mary Glover, promoted witch hunting in sermons, promoted European view of Covens, encouraging wider accusations

Phips - Governer, 1688 Revolution - power vacum in Salem, only ended with Phips arrival in May ‘92, had to deal with Indian attacks on Maine frontier, absence allowed trials to flourish, Staughton

Religious Conditions/Individuals

Cotton Mather - Political leader of the community, role in April 1689 revolt against Andros, rebel leader, involved in negotiating the Massachusetts Charter 1691, Religious leader, 400+ books, 3rd gen colonist, family of respected Ministers, went to Harvard, Memorable Providences on Mary Glover, promoted witch hunting in sermons - lack of separation demonstrates theocratic government structure, supporting religious argument

Massachusetts Puritanism, outsiders and women - Mary Glover case, Catholic who only spoke Gaelic in a theocratic state, Bridget Bishop’s inn and clothing, Sarah Osborne’s Irish servant and transgression of inheritance rules - Women believed to be more susceptible to the Devil, concentrated zealous environment, lack of diversity - Non-Puritans could be banished, voting based on church membership, 1630-42, emigration of 10,000 Puritans BUT Rebecca Nurse, older well respected member of the community, initially acquitted, wealthy, George Burroughs, Puritan Minister, borrowed from Putnams - more about social disputes

Cotton Mather acting as a vessel for Massachusetts Puritanism, his lack of separation in roles of religious and political support theocracy, religious conditions very important but should be considered alongside economic/social tensions as providing a pretext for these to be realised.

Severity:

Involvement of children

Accused extensive numbers, Mercy Lewis - accused 9, Elizabeth Hubbard, testified against 29, 19 executed, played on Puritan fears of the Devil, fits, possession, Elizabeth Parris hurling a Bible across the room BUT role of Staughton essential in accepting child + spectral evidence, role of Parris essential in actions towards Tituba, opening of O/T court, decision to prosecute, used as pawns for political gains, Ann Putnam’s parents provided names

Legal Authorities

Phips - decision to open O/T court in May 1692 and appoint Staughton as judge, accepted spectral and child evidence, swift prosecutions, court denied testimonies of neighbours of good character, accepted gossip from Salem Village, suspects not allowed defense

Ending:

Legal authorities

Phips - decision to close the O/T court in October 1692 and order Staughton to not accepted spectral evidence, opened Superior Court of Judicature 25 November 1692 did not allow ‘spectral evidence’ which had been used against most of those previously accused, imposed ban on witchcraft books, social status of accused including wife grew from Tituba London - repealing of Massachusetts law made in December 1692 that enabled swift prosecutions and harsh punishments

Religious authorities

Increase Mather - Began to question use of evidence, wide audience of godly Puritans, respected family, stated that witches rare and condemned spectral evidence

East Anglia

Causes:

Economic Conditions

Crop failures, ergot 1646 harvest, rotted crops, price of meat and cheese rose dramatically, wheat up 20%, Inflation - price of livestock up 12%, grain up 15%, Enclosure, landlords increasingly tempted, left many in poverty, poor rates needed, exacerbated tensions as associated with sin by Puritans, Ely - Sir Miles Sandys enclosed 4,000 acres of common land at Sutton BUT Civil War - caused inflation as huge resources needed by both sides, weekly assessment tax devised by Parliament, exacerbated, 12x higher than Ship Money

Legal Conditions

Lack of Assize Courts, already shaky but in later part of the war Charles moved forces east, unsafe to make circuit from London, more experienced, less corruptable judges unavailable, increased power of local magistrates, isolated cases in 20s and 30s rarely went to court, other suspects not interrogated when they did, however when Earl of Warwick appointed to oversee Essex summer assizes at Chelmsford with little experience, worked closely with local magistrates and sent 19 women to hang

Religious Conditions

Royal authority breaking down, caused exodus of Arminian Royalist gentry, replacement of moderate clergy with Puritans by Parliamentarian gentry, Royalists faced arrest and estate confiscation, John Lowes, Royalist clergyman accused, Eastern Association’s status as an extreme Puritan area, provided a large amount of soldiers for the Parliamenterian army, 20% men off fighting, BUT caused by Civil War

Individuals

Hopkins and Stearne - Hopkins’ assumption of authority, claimed an agent of Parliament to fill the power vacum, Religious significance, followed example of Iconoclast General William Dowsing 1643-44, front of the Discovery of Witches - Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live, methods of torture including watching, walking, swimming test significant in causing spread, end of persecutions aligns with Hopkins’ August 1647 death BUT end of the Civil War already, importance could be questioned, authority already eroded for example September ‘46 trial at King’s Lynn, 7 acquittals, mayor and 6 JPs attended, role of John Godbold at Ely, experienced, had previously acted as Special Commissioner at Bury St Edmunds, all 3 witches tried acquitted.

Clearly, while Hopkins and Stearne should be considered as important figures in their own right, their success was clearly in part allowed by the Civil War’s allowance of the erosion of traditional authority, acting as a mitigating factor in their success.

Social Conditions

1645 ‘Omens - women across Eastern Association were starting to drink and swear like men, Fears of women without men, Suffolk, 80% of accused female, many worked in dairy farmining, vulnerable to accusations if went wrong, some witches connected to radical Puritan sects, women should be viewed as spiritually and socially equal, shift in traditional power authorities on a gender based scale, patriarchy temporarily limited.

Ending:

Individuals

Legal authorities questioned Hopkins at Norfolk Assizes, asked if he himself was involved with the Devil to gain such knowledge, subverted his use of threats, Watching and Walking questioned, torture criticised, which had been influential in allowing for the start and spread of the craze, Swimming Test as not allowed by law, religious ideas that witchcraft a blasphemous belief as questioned God’s power, Hopkins death in August 1647, end of craze BUT fact that he was questioned in the first place conveys the wider-scale societal shifts, including the re-establishment of legal authority and the return of a more religiously balanced society, also aligns with end of the Civil War so not entirely independant/isolated, simply a consequence. John Gaule - Minister of Great Staughton, ‘Select Cases of Conscience’, advocated logical thinking, criticism of Hopkins and Stearne’s methods legally, evidence should only be investigated by magistrates, not private individuals, criticism of Hopkins and Stearne religiously as being idolatrously admired by the population, talked to local parishioners and interviewed imprisoned witches on campaign BUT not a catalyst for the end, lacked much initial support, long-term did help convince authorities witch hunt not needed.

Restoration of traditional authority

Patriarchal/Social, men returning from war - 20% gone, end to fears of women’s independance, Legal, assize courts re-established, presence of experienced Judges like John Godbold at Ely, Miles Corbett, Political, following Charles’ surrender to the Scots at Newark in May 1646, Royalist gentry returning to their estates, punished Parliamentarian tenants, presence of mayor and 6 JPs at King’s Lynn led to 7 acquittals

Just as the re-establishment of traditional authority and institutions allowed for the end of the Civil war, the return of a pariarchal societal structure as a result of the fighting’s cease allowed for fears of women’s independance to end, acting in conjunction with other factors to return an ordered society on a social, interpersonal level.

Costs

Prohibitive for all aspects of legal system, witches at Ipswitch cost £50 as awaited trial in assize court, jailer unable to afford this, imprisonment 3p per prisoner per day, Mary Yarmouth’s execution £3, burning, Suffolk churchwardens began to collect new tax, hunt in Aldeburgh costing £40, 1/7 of annual budget, witch hunting viewed as unneccesary luxury strained communities unable to afford BUT fact that such costs were deemed neccesary during a time of even greater economic hardship eg peak of civil war reveals that a shift in attitudes attributable to a wide-scale political and religious shift and balancing following the re-restablishment of traditional authority reveals that costs simply presented themselves as a reason against witch hunting in addition to much larger factors. Also exacerbated by Hopkins + Stearne’s individual actions.