Notes on Intellectual Revolutions that Define Society

INTRODUCTION

• This lesson will give light to the development of Science and scientific ideas in the heart of the society.

• The goal of this lesson is to articulate ways by which society is transformed by Science and Technology.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

• Science is interwoven with the society.

• Examples of early scientific interweaving with society:

  1. The earliest example of brain surgery goes back around $6{,}000$ years ago in Cappadocia, Turkey. Trepanation - making an opening like a small round hole in the head.

  2. Thousand-year-old agricultural practice: China’s solution to sustainable farming. The practice of raising fish in rice paddies by Chinese farmers is more than $1{,}000$ years old; it preserves the environment and benefits local communities.

  3. Mummification in the Philippines:

     • Mummification is a process of preserving a deceased human.

     • Mummies are classified based on the method and the medium of preservation.

• Why did the ancient Egyptians mummify their dead?

• The ancient Egyptians believed that when someone died, their soul left their body. The soul would then return and be reunited with the body after burial. However, the soul needed to be able to find and recognise the body in order to live forever.

SO, HOW CAN SCIENCE BE DEFINED?

• Science as an idea:

• It includes ideas, theories and all available systematic explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.

• Science as an intellectual activity:

• The study involves systematic observations and experimentations.

• Science as a body of knowledge:

• It is a subject or a discipline or a field of study; it deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world (school science).

• Science as a personal and social activity:

• Science is both knowledge and activities by humans to develop a better understanding of the world around them.

PHILOSOPHICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONTEXT

• People developed noble ideas, later known as Philosophy, to provide possible explanations for certain phenomena.

• People used religion to rationalize the origin of life.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE BIRTH OF MODERN SCIENCE

• It was the period of enlightenment when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed society’s views about nature.

• Began in Europe.

• Birth of modern science as a result of these developments.

• Timeframe: $15{,}th$ - $17{,}th$ century.

KEY FIGURES DURING THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

• Bacon

• Galileo

• Newton

• Linnaeus

• Vesalius

• Copernicus

• Diderot

• (Note: The era is also associated with the Age of Reason.)

DEFINITION AND TIMELINE

• The term "Scientific Revolution" refers to historical changes in thought and belief, and to changes in social and institutional organization, that unfolded in Europe between $1550$-$1700$.

RELIGION VS. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

• Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists.

• Scientific individuals were sentenced to death or suffered condemnation from religious institutions.

• These challenges did not stop scientists from pursuing curiosity about the natural and physical world.

SOME INDIVIDUALS & THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

• Nicholaus Copernicus

  • Developed the Copernican Model: heliocentrism; the Sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular paths.

  • Copernican Model published in $1543$.

  • Copernican Model was banned & ignored by Rome (16th century) – considered heretical for Catholics.

CHARLES DARWIN

• Famous for his Theory of Evolution by Means of Natural Selection.

• Came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family.

• Joined the $5$-year voyage through HMS Beagle on the island of Galápagos.

• Published The Origin of Species in $1859$.

• Challenged religious and unscientific ideas prominent during those days.

• Provided the framework for doing scientific activities marked by observations and experiments.

SIGMUND FREUD

• Famous figure in the field of psychology.

• Method of Psychoanalysis: a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness.

• This method was unorthodox; focused on human sexuality and the nature of evil in man.

• Definition: Human sexuality is the way people experience and express themselves sexually, involving biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors.

CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

• Development of Science in Mesoamerica:

  • Regions: MESOAMERICA, MEXICO, UNITED STATES, GULF OF M Mexico, Mérida, Ex: Maya civilization, Teotihuacán, Veracuz, Chichén Itzá, México, Colima, Inca civilization, Cholula, Tecomán, Villahermosa, La Venta, Ancient Site, Belmopan, Palenque, Aztec civilization, Acapulco, Oaxaha (Oaxaca), Oaxaca Area, Maya Area, Copán, Yaxchilan, Caracol, San Lorenzo, Monte Albán, Palenque, etc. (General map references showing major sites across the region.)

• Note: The slide layout includes multiple locations and civilizations rather than a single linear narrative.

MAYA CIVILIZATION

• Lasted about $2{,}000$ years.

• Well-known for their works in astronomy, understanding celestial bodies, predicting eclipses, and the use of astrological cycles in planting and harvesting.

• Weave cloth and were among the first to produce rubber products around $3{,}000$ years ago.

• One of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system: Mayan hieroglyphics.

• Skilled in mathematics; developed number systems based on base $20$.

INCA CIVILIZATION

• Timeframe: $1438{-}1533$.

• Features:

  • Stone buildings

  • Irrigation system

  • Calendar with $12$ months

  • First suspension bridge

  • Quipu (knotted ropes)

  • Inca textiles

AZTEC CIVILIZATION

• Flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from $1300$ to $1521$.

• Contributions:

  • Mandatory education

  • Chocolates

  • Antispasmodic medication

  • Chinampa (floating gardens)

  • Aztec calendar

  • Invention of canoe

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

• INDIA

  • Well known for manufacturing iron and metallurgical works.

  • Traditional medicine; notable in astronomy.

  • Notable mathematics: Aryabhata ($476{-}550$).

  • Brahmasputha Siddhanta (628 AD): Rules of zero, negative numbers, and algebraic rules for elementary operations with such numbers (Brahmagupta).

• CHINA

  • Substantial contributions across medicine, astronomy, science and mathematics, arts and philosophy, music, among others.

  • Technology and seismology:

  • The branch of geology studying earthquakes is seismology.

  • Seismographs: instruments used to measure and record seismic waves.

  • Almost $2{,}000$ years ago, the Chinese developed the very first seismograph.

  • The original seismograph involved metal spheres balanced in the mouths of dragons; slightest vibrations caused them to fall out.

MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES

• The Muslim Golden Age lasted until the $13^{ ext{th}}$ century.

• They placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain thought experiments.

• Notable figures:

  • Ibn al-Haytham: Father of Optics; empirical proof; Intromission Theory of Light.

  • Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi: Mathematics; concept of algorithm; algebra derived from al-jabr; origin of the word algebra.

  • Ibn Sina (Avicenna): Pioneered experimental medicine; discovery of contagious disease; introduction of clinical pharmacology.

  • Jabir Ibn Hayyan: Father of Chemistry; foundation of modern chemistry.

• Golden Age of Islam started around $11^{ ext{th}}{-}13^{ ext{th}}$ century; Mongols conquered Islam.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

• Regions and topics:

  • Astronomy

  • Mathematics

  • Medicine

  • Alchemy

• Lebombo bone:

  • From Africa; oldest known calendar; a baboon fibia with notches.

  • Dated to $35{,}000$ years ago.

  • The bone has $29$ notches; a 29-day cycle; used for lunar calendars and possibly menstrual cycles.

  • Described as one of the world’s oldest known mathematical instruments; found in Swaziland; age around $7{,}000$ years old (interpretation on the slide).

• The Lebombo bone is considered the world’s oldest calendar device.

• Egyptians contributed to mathematics and algebra/trigonometry; skilled in the four fundamental operations and other mathematical skills.

SUMMARY OF ETHICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

• Science as a human endeavor is deeply tied to social, religious, and political structures.

• The acceptance or rejection of new ideas often depended on the power structures of the time (e.g., Rome’s stance on Copernicus’ model; authority of religious institutions).

• The spread of scientific ideas often required translation across cultures (Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas).

• The evolution of scientific methods—from observation and explanation to systematic experimentation—shaped education and institutions.

• The diverse cradles of science highlight that knowledge builds cumulatively across civilizations and geographies.

KEY TERMINOLOGY AND DATES TO REMEMBER

• Trepanation: ancient brain surgery procedure.

• Copernican Model (1550s–1543): heliocentric solar system model published in $1543$.

• The Origin of Species: published in $1859$.

• Brahmasputha Siddhanta: treatise from $628$ AD introducing rules for zero and negative numbers.

• Aryabhata: prominent Indian mathematician and astronomer ($476{-}550$).

• Aztec chinampa: agricultural technique.

• Quipu: Inca system of knotted ropes for record-keeping.

CONNECTIONS TO PREVIOUS LECTURES / REAL-WORLD RELEVANCE

• The Scientific Revolution is foundational for modern science, influencing how we conduct experiments, reason about natural phenomena, and question established authorities.

• Cross-cultural science shows that innovations emerge from multiple civilizations, not a single birthplace.

• Understanding the historical context of science informs ethical considerations about the application of scientific knowledge today (medical ethics, technology, environmental stewardship).

PRACTICAL EXERCISES / REFLECTION QUESTIONS

• Identify a modern technology that emerged from ideas dating back to ancient or non-European civilizations and describe its lineage.

• Compare the four definitions of science and provide one modern example for each definition.

• Explain how religious or political contexts can both hinder and promote scientific progress, with examples from Copernicus, Darwin, and Ibn al-Haytham.

KEY NUMERICAL REFERENCES FOR quick recall

• $6{,}000$ years ago (brain surgery example)

• $1{,}000$+ years (rice-fish farming in China)

• $2{,}000$ years (Maya astronomy duration)

• $12$ months (Inca calendar)

• $29$ and $30$ (lunar calendar references)

• $35{,}000$ years ago (Lebombo bone calendar)

• $7{,}000$ years old (oldest mathematical instrument reference)

• $2{,}000$ years (Mesoamerican-astronomy timespan)

• Year references: $1543$ o $1859$ (Copernicus; Darwin)

• Cultural periods: $11^{ ext{th}}{-}13^{ ext{th}}$ century (Islamic Golden Age)

• European scientific era: $1550{-}1700$ (Scientific Revolution)

• Aryabhata: $476{-}550$ (approximate active years)

• Brahmagupta: $628$ AD

• Copernicus published in $1543$

• Darwin’s The Origin of Species in $1859$

• Bacon, Galileo, Newton, Linnaeus, Vesalius, Copernicus, Diderot (key figures)

• Mesoamerican dates: Aztec $1300{-}1521$; Inca $1438{-}1533$; Maya $\sim$$2{,}000$ years of civilization