PLSC 101 Final Exam Study Guide

Bureaucracy

Key Topics to Know

  • Definition of bureaucracy: A bureaucratic organization is a formal, rationally designed system aimed at achieving specific organizational goals. It involves hierarchy, specialization, and a strict set of rules intended to improve efficiency.

  • Bureaucratic culture: Refers to the shared values, beliefs, and practices in a bureaucratic environment that can influence behavior and decision-making within agencies. This culture often emphasizes procedure and protocol over innovation or adaptability.

  • "Deep state": A term used to describe a purported secret network of power within the government that operates independently of elected officials. It is often associated with conspiracy theories suggesting that there are entrenched interests undermining the legitimate political system.

  • Red tape: Refers to excessive regulation or rigid conformity to formal rules that is considered redundant and hinders action or decision-making in bureaucracies. Red tape exists due to the necessity for oversight, record-keeping, and accountability in complex organizations.

  • Limitation riders: These are provisions attached to legislation that restrict the use of federal funds for specific purposes, thereby giving Congress a mechanism to influence agency behavior and priorities without direct intervention.

  • Inspectors general: Independent officials within federal agencies who are responsible for ensuring accountability and efficiency. They conduct audits and investigations to detect and prevent financial mismanagement and fraud.

  • Iron triangles: A stable, mutually beneficial relationship between government agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups that can lead to policy-making that serves the interests of these entities rather than the public good.

  • Agency autonomy and political control: Describes the tension between the independent functioning of bureaucratic agencies and the oversight or influence exerted by elected officials and political appointees. Autonomy can lead to resistance against control, while too much political influence can hinder effectiveness.

Sample Review Questions

  • What is a bureaucracy, and what distinguishes it from other political organizations?
  • Why might bureaucratic culture encourage agency autonomy or resistance to political control?
  • What do people commonly mean when they refer to a "deep state"?
  • What is red tape, and why does it exist in bureaucratic systems?
  • How do limitation riders allow Congress to shape agency behavior?
  • What role do inspectors general play in promoting accountability?

The Federal Judiciary

Key Topics to Know

  • Judicial review: The power of the courts to examine the actions of the legislative and executive branches and determine whether such actions are consistent with the Constitution. This doctrine is a fundamental aspect of checks and balances in the U.S. political system.

  • Structure of the federal court system: Comprises three main levels: U.S. District Courts (trial courts), U.S. Courts of Appeals (appellate courts), and the U.S. Supreme Court (the highest court).

  • Supreme Court's primary functions: Includes hearing appeals on important legal issues, interpreting laws, and resolving disputes between states or appeals from lower courts.

  • Rule of four: A Supreme Court procedure whereby if four justices agree to grant a certiorari petition, the case is taken up by the Court.

  • Writ of certiorari: An order by which a higher court reviews a decision of a lower court. The vast majority of cases submitted for a writ do not result in the Court granting review, making this a selective process.

  • Precedent / stare decisis: Legal principles that mandate courts to follow previous judicial decisions (precedents) when making rulings in similar cases, thus ensuring consistency in the law.

  • Public confidence in the judiciary: The perceived legitimacy and trust in the court system by the populace, which can affect the judiciary’s influence and overall power within the government.

  • Checks on the Court: Include mechanisms through which the legislative and executive branches can influence or constrain judicial power.

Sample Review Questions

  • What is judicial review, and why is it important in U.S. politics?
  • Describe the structure of the federal court system.
  • What does the Supreme Court primarily do, and why is uniform interpretation important?
  • What is the "rule of four,” and how does it influence the Court's docket?
  • What is a writ of certiorari, and why do so few petitions succeed?
  • How does stare decisis guide judicial decision-making?
  • Under what conditions does public confidence in the Court rise or fall?
  • How can Congress and the president check judicial power?

Public Opinion

Key Topics to Know

  • Definition of public opinion (V.O. Key Jr.): Public opinion is defined as the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs shared by some portion of the adult population, reflecting democratic governance's responsiveness to citizens.

  • Polling accuracy and sampling: The process of selecting a subset of individuals from a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Accuracy depends on sampling methods, size, and question design.

  • Literary Digest poll error (1936): A historical case where an influential poll predicted a landslide victory for Alf Landon over Franklin D. Roosevelt by relying on a biased sample, leading to a significant underrepresentation of lower-income individuals during a time of economic distress.

  • Margin of error: A statistic expressing the amount of random sampling error in a poll's results, indicating the range in which the true opinion likely falls.

  • Partisanship: The strong allegiance to a political party that influences individual views and attitudes towards political issues, often skewing interpretation of information.

  • Partisan perception / motivated reasoning: The tendency of individuals to favor information that reinforces their existing beliefs or party identification, which can affect their understanding and decision-making.

  • Aggregate public opinion stability: Refers to the idea that while individual opinions may fluctuate, the overall trends in public sentiment can remain stable over time, generally due to party identification factors.

  • Party identification as a predictor of policy views: Individuals' political party affiliation can strongly influence their opinions on issues, often aligning with the party's position.

Sample Review Questions

  • How does V.O. Key define public opinion, and why does that matter for democratic governance?
  • Why did the Literary Digest poll fail in 1936?
  • What does the margin of error tell us about polling results?
  • How does partisanship shape how people interpret political information?
  • Why is aggregate public opinion more stable than individual responses?
  • Why is party identification the single strongest predictor of policy attitudes?

Elections and Political Participation

Key Topics to Know

  • Purposes of elections: Include legitimizing government authority, facilitating political participation, and enabling voters to choose representatives and express preferences.

  • Voting Rights Act of 1965: Landmark legislation aimed at overcoming legal barriers at state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote, thus enhancing democratic participation.

  • Voter turnout patterns: Analyze demographic trends in electoral participation, highlighting disparities based on factors like age, race, and education.

  • Rational choice / paradox of voting: Theoretically, voting is seen as irrational due to the negligible chance of influencing an election outcome, known as the paradox of voting, yet people still engage in it out of civic duty or social pressure.

  • Party identification (as psychological attachment): The emotional connection individuals feel towards a political party, often guiding their voting behavior and decision-making during elections.

  • Campaign finance: Refers to the funding of candidates for political office, encompassing various sources such as individual contributions, political action committees (PACs), and other financial means.

  • Citizens United decision: A pivotal Supreme Court ruling that allowed unlimited independent political spending by corporations and unions, fundamentally changing the landscape of campaign finance.

  • PACS (Political Action Committees): Organizations that raise money privately to influence elections or legislation, representing interests ranging from corporations to social movements.

  • Incumbency advantage: The inherent advantage held by current officeholders over challengers, primarily due to name recognition, established donor networks, and resources.

  • Electoral College: The body that formally elects the President and Vice President of the U.S., which can produce outcomes that differ from the national popular vote due to its allocation of electoral votes by state.

  • Gerrymandering: The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party over another, posing a threat to fair representation.

  • Consequences of low turnout: Low voter participation can skew electoral results, often leading to underrepresentation of certain demographic groups and distorting policy outcomes.

Sample Review Questions

  • What key functions do elections serve in a democracy?
  • How did the Voting Rights Act expand federal oversight of elections?
  • Which demographic groups vote most consistently, and why?
  • What is the rational choice model of voting, and why is voting considered "paradoxical"?
  • How does party identification influence voter decision-making?
  • In what ways do political parties mobilize voters during campaigns?
  • What are the typical effects of negative campaigning on political trust and turnout?
  • What did Citizens United v. FEC change about independent political spending?
  • What do PACs do in the campaign finance system?
  • Why do incumbents have such a strong electoral advantage?
  • How can the Electoral College produce outcomes that differ from the popular vote?
  • What makes gerrymandering a threat to fair representation?
  • How does low turnout skew the electorate?

Political Parties

Key Topics to Know

  • Definition of a political party: A political party is an organized group of individuals who share similar political ideologies and work together to influence government policy by electing their candidates to office and forming coalitions.

  • Two-party system origins: Stemming from the electoral system, particularly winner-take-all elections, the U.S. has developed a two-party system that consolidates opposing views into two dominant parties.

  • Winner-take-all elections: These elections award the winning candidate all of the electoral votes or the legislative seat, discouraging third parties due to the difficulty in competing against established parties.

  • Early party skepticism among Founders: Many early American leaders, like George Washington, feared the divisive nature and factionalism of political parties, believing it would undermine national unity.

  • Primary elections: Elections held to determine a party's nominee for the general election, allowing party members to vote for their preferred candidates.

  • National party conventions: Large gatherings of party delegates where presidential nominees are officially selected, and the party's platform is established for the election.

  • Progressive Era reforms (primaries, civil service): Measures aimed at reducing the influence of political machines and promoting transparency in government, introducing primaries to allow more direct voter participation and civil service reforms to promote merit-based hiring.

  • Split-ticket voting: The practice of voting for candidates from different political parties on the same ballot, indicating a more individualized approach to voting rather than strict party loyalty.

  • New Deal coalition: A political alliance formed during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt that included various interest groups supporting the Democratic Party, notably African Americans, labor unions, and liberals.

  • Party organization (running elections, mobilizing voters): Refers to the responsibilities and activities of party officials, including strategizing campaigns, fund-raising, mobilizing grassroots support, and recruiting candidates.

Sample Review Questions

  • What is a political party, and how do parties differ from interest groups?
  • Why do winner-take-all rules reinforce a two-party system?
  • Why did early American leaders fear the rise of political parties?
  • How do primary elections differ from general elections?
  • What happens at a national party convention?
  • How did Progressive Era reforms weaken party machines?
  • What is split-ticket voting, and what does it reveal about voter behavior?
  • Who made up the New Deal coalition?
  • What responsibilities fall to the party organization?

The Media

Key Topics to Know

  • Colonial-era newspapers: Often operated by individuals with strong political opinions or alignments, newspapers served not only as a source of news but also as a means of political expression and mobilization.

  • Communications Act of 1934: Legislation that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to regulate interstate and foreign communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable, thus emphasizing the public interest standard.

  • Public interest standard: A principle mandating that broadcasters must serve the public interest, convenience, and necessity, guiding regulatory policies and content decisions.

  • Pack journalism: A phenomenon where journalists cover the same stories using similar sources, which can lead to homogeneous and sometimes biased reporting, limiting diverse perspectives in political coverage.

  • Prior restraint: A legal principle meaning that the government cannot censor a publication before it is published, considered unconstitutional and a violation of the First Amendment.

  • Pentagon Papers decision: A landmark Supreme Court case (New York Times Co. v. United States) establishing that the government cannot prevent publication of classified materials unless it poses a clear and present danger, reinforcing the principle of a free press.

  • Media as a "fourth branch": The notion that media acts as an additional check on government power, providing oversight and accountability while informing the public on political matters.

Sample Review Questions

  • Who typically operated newspapers in the colonial period, and why does that matter?
  • What does it mean for broadcasters to serve the "public interest, convenience, and necessity"?
  • What is pack journalism, and how does it affect political coverage?
  • What is prior restraint, and why is it considered unconstitutional?
  • What did the Pentagon Papers case establish about limits on government censorship?
  • Why is the media sometimes referred to as a “fourth branch"?