Motivation in Sport Psychology

Primary Aims:
- Test hypotheses, measure variables
Assumptions:
- Reality is objective and observable
Typical Research Questions:
- How many; how much; does X predict Y?
Types of Data:
- Scores, counts, ratings derived from scales, assessments
Common Methods:
- Experiments, surveys, large scale observation
Role of Researcher:
- Seeks objectivity and non-influence on data
Strengths:
- Replicability, generalizability, hypothesis testing
Weaknesses:
- Reductionistic: lacks context
- Time-intensive; less generalizability

Primary Aims:
- Explore meanings and experiences
Assumptions:
- Reality is subjective and contextual
Typical Research Questions:
- What is it like; how is this experienced; why does this happen?
Types of Data:
- Interview transcripts, observations, documents
Common Methods:
- Interviews, transcripts, observations, documents
Role of Researcher:
- Acknowledged instrument in data generation
Strengths:
- Depth, contextual understanding
Weaknesses:
- Time-intensive; less generalizability

Sport and Exercise Psychology has historically been dominated by Eurocentric world views and methodologies.
Growing acknowledgment of Indigenous ways of knowing includes:
- Centering of Indigenous world views and methods (e.g., storytelling; two-eyed seeing).
- Drawing knowledge from Indigenous knowledge systems alongside Western methods.
- Recognizing historical harms associated with racism and colonization.

Positive Psychology in Sport and Exercise (pages 4-6)
Standards of Conduct and Practitioner Competencies in Sport and Exercise Psychology (pages 10-11)
History of Sport and Exercise Psychology (pages 11-14)
Evidence-based Practice (pages 20-21)

Defined as internal processes—such as needs, thoughts, and emotions—that give behavior energy and direction.
Motivation is influenced by:
- Changeability—individuals are not doomed if they lack motivation.

Defined as learning that occurs through behaviors being reinforced or punished.
Reinforcement:
- An increase in frequency of a desirable behavior.
- Positive Reinforcement: Any factor that, through its occurrence, increases the likelihood of a behavior (often referred to as a reward).
- Negative Reinforcement: Any factor that, through its removal, increases the likelihood of a behavior (removes something aversive).
- Key Concept: Both types should lead to an increase in behavior.

Defined as when an undesirable behavior is decreased in frequency.
Positive Punishment: The addition of an aversive stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Negative Punishment: The removal of a desired stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior (also referred to as response cost).
Key Concept: Both types should lead to a decrease in behavior.

Learning that occurs through observing others rather than experiencing the rewards or punishments directly.
- Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning through the observation of rewards received by others.
- Vicarious Punishment: Learning through the observation of punishments received by others.

Cognitive approaches emphasize the role of cognitions and beliefs (thoughts) in motivation.
- Cognitions shape an individual's understanding of their environment, influencing reasons for behavior.
- Cognitions can be altered to facilitate behavior change.

Relationships between cognitions, emotions, and behaviors:
- Cognitions influence emotions and behavior.
- Behavior can positively or negatively influence thoughts and emotions.
- Key Concept: There is a reciprocal relationship between cognitions/emotions and behavior.

Theories are formed based on empirical evidence and are continually being updated.
They provide a framework for scientists and offer a path for conducting research and interventions, specifying relationships across constructs and attempting to explain phenomena over time, contexts, and individuals.

A widely used theory that highlights personal and social influences on behaviors.
First utilized to study health-related behaviors.
Components:
- Behavioral Beliefs: Individual attitudes towards the behavior.
- Normative Beliefs: Social norms related to the behavior, informing subjective norms.
- Control Beliefs: Perceived control over the behavior.
- Output: Attitudes and perceived behavioral control influence intentions, which ultimately affect behavior.

Attitudes: Coaches or personal trainers might work to enhance an athlete's/exerciser’s attitude about sport/exercise.
Subjective Norms: Strategies for increasing the perceived social norms around the behavior.
Perceived Control: Enhancing the athlete's perceived behavioral control over sport/exercise.

Evidence shows that all proposed relationships of TPB are supported; both attitudes and perceived behavioral control demonstrate relational ties with intentions.
However, intentions do not always consistently predict actual physical activity behavior, with approximate success rates discussed.