America's First Empire Notes

Global Conquest

Colonization began in the 15th century with Columbus in America.
Expanded significantly in the 19th century with Britain and France leading early, followed by Germany and Italy.
European powers divided Africa and Asia into colonies, with nearly every country holding a colony.
The 19th century was a period of unprecedented colonization by Western civilization.
Definition of colonization: The act of building an empire, where one nation expands its power or influence over another, claiming territory as a colony, often through conquest.
All are examples of Imperialism

The Colonization of Africa

Many countries were involved in the colonization of Africa.
There didn't seem to be any sense or order to their division of property in Africa
This division of land has a massive long-term impact on Africa and its countries.

“The Rhodes Colossus”

This political cartoon is satire.
It references the Colossus of Rhodes, an ancient Greek statue considered one of the seven wonders of the world.
The man in the image is Cecil John Rhodes, a British colonist in South Africa.
- He wanted to build a telegraph line from Cairo, Egypt, to Cape Town, South Africa.
The significance of the image is an Englishman spanning the entire continent of Africa.

The Colonization of Asia

Similarly to Africa, European countries also laid claim to Asia

Britain as a World Power

Britain was the most powerful nation in colonization.
The British Empire spanned most continents, making Britain the dominant world power until the World Wars of the 20th century.
The political cartoon shows Britain as an octopus-man hybrid, with each limb representing its control in a different colony.

American Exceptionalism

Most Americans in the 19th century identified American imperialism as emerging late in the 19th century.
There were various late 19th century expeditions into Cuba, Philippines, and other parts of Asia and Latin America
For much of history, the United States claimed to be the exception of western civilization.
However, the history of the United States is an imperialistic history.

The West in Context

Every territorial expansion involved conquest of some sort.
Indian Removal in the 1830s focused on territory east of the Mississippi.
The Louisiana Purchase and Mexican-American War opened up territory in the West.
This began the process of westward expansion and domination of Native American people living there.
Historians argue the West is America’s First Empire.
The West as an experiment.
The same practices used in late 19th and early 20th century imperialism in Asia and Latin America Set the stage and provided experience for later imperialistic pursuits

Practice Imperialism

Similarities in method among Imperialist countries.
Similar treatment of native peoples.
Implied inferiority of indigenous population and mistreatment as a result.
Same perception of progress and expansion of democratic institutions.
The actions of the US in the West will mirror the policies of imperialism—set us up for long-term consequences
Treatment of Japan and China in 1890s—influence in 20th century with WWII and the spread of communism

Westward Expansion as Manifest Destiny

Definition: A 19th-century American attitude towards westward expansion; belief expansion was the nation’s obvious fate and destined to occur.
Encompassed an idea that westward expansion represented progress, as the democratic institutions of the country would spread with the nation’s control of the territory.
Inherently racist in its nature, assuming and operating as if the people already occupying the conquered territory were racially inferior
Became a justification for conquest—spreading progress and civilization
Economically driven by American desire for access to both east coast and west coast trade.

American Progress or Spirit of the Frontier

Painted by John Gast in 1872
Demonstrates 19th-century perceptions of westward expansion as progress

American Racism

Anglo-Saxonism: 19th-century American redefinition of race; applies to the white “native-born” Americans descended from western Europeans, specifically England, France, and the Netherlands.
Belief in racial superiority—race hierarchy with white Americans at top
Still anti-immigrant—Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, Jews, Russians, etc. not considered white and not given white statues or privilege
Justification for conquest of western people
Role in conquest of Mexicans and Native Americans
Influential in later imperialism and 19th & 20th century American anti-immigrant sentiment

Conquest of Mexico

Mexican-American War in 1848
War of imperialism—pure territorial expansion
Mexico was a young, weak nation, incapable of fending off the superior American military.
Gave the US access to the western territory
Influenced by Anglo-Saxon based race structures
Mexicans = a mongrel race, or mixed breed
Hypocritical considering the Anglo- Saxons are mixed race whites

Mexico’s Lost Territory

End result of the Mexican-American War: The United States takes half of Mexico
Imperialism in practice
Conquest of Mexico, but still occupied territory—Native American populations to be subdued

Anti-Mexican Sentiment

America gained half of Mexico and inherited the Mexican population already living there—set up racial conflict
Brown-White Racial Tension
Mexican residents now a minority in an increasingly white area
White settlers barred Hispanics from mines, squatted illegally on Rancho land, and passed laws to remove land previously granted through Spanish and Mexican land grants.
Mexicans were denied access to the best jobs and reduced to poverty and segregated neighborhoods.

The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction

Historian Linda Gordon uncovered an example of new tension between the Mexican and white populations
Orphan Train and Racial Transformation 1904
Story of Irish Catholic orphans transported to the West to be placed with Catholic families
Adopted by Mexican Catholic families, white settlers protested “white” children being placed with “non-white” Mexicans
Kidnapped the children from Mexican families, courts upheld the decision
On the train ride, turned from non-white Irish to white status in West—key to understanding why immigrant groups settled, redefinition of whiteness and race privilege

Conquest of the Indians

History of conquest
- Colonial wars pre-American independence
- Post-American independence, wars over the Northwest territory, defeat of Tecumseh, and Indian Removal of 1830s—eliminated Indian resistance east of the Mississippi River
- The Louisiana Purchase and Mexican American War opened up settlement of the West and more conflict with the Native American population
- 1850s and Civil War—at the same time United States at war in West with Indians

Indian Removal 1830s

5 Civilized Tribes were removed to territory in Oklahoma despite a treaty from the early 1800s with Jefferson guaranteeing them their original land
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the removal as an “exchange” of territory in the South for territory in the West.
Removed to reservations in OK
Missouri and Illinois Native Americans were removed

War and Conflict in the West

Settler Wars of the 1860s
Plains Indians lashed out in response to new settlers and conflict
Racial superiority leads to gross violations of Indian rights and massacres
Attempted treaties and peace
- Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851
Disease and removal policy along with conflict resulted in war
Mass migration to California and Oregon territory created a need for policy with the Indians
Result of the Gold Rush and general settlement in Oregon
Settlers brought disease, caused conflict, threatened the way of life for many tribes
Created the “Indian problem” for white settlers and government, especially once settlers in conflict with Indians

Grant’s Peace Policy

Former Civil War Union General Grant ran for office in 1868—campaign slogan “Let us have peace”
In response to Settler Wars in addition to the battle over Reconstruction in the South
The goal was to assimilate the Indians into American society and end military conflict both on and off the reservations
Marked a shift in American policy—to absorb the Indians as citizens, away from strict removal

Reservation System Explained

Originally supposed to be a protection for Native Americans and settlers
Long history of reservations—1830s Oklahoma reservations set up for 5 Civilized Tribes
Designated land specifically for Indian use; the US Government became an agent for the rest of Indian territorial land
Exchange: for control of land, the government would pay annuities to the tribes and care for the people on the reservation
Problem with reservations
- Poor government rations
- Confined to reservation by US troops—no hunting to supplement food source
- No job opportunities—completely dependent on govt. handouts
- Devastating long-term effects in the 20th century

Modern Reservations

There are many modern reservations

Reservation Poverty: Long-term Effects

The graph compares services the average American finds to be pretty basic, like electricity, indoor plumbing, and phone service, with numbers on Reservations

Reservation Poverty: Long-term Effects

Compare the averages for the Native American reservations with the United States overall.
The averages for the Native American are extremely low compared to the United States overall.
Many are unconscious of these facts in our society.
There are massive long-term impacts of the Reservation system on Native Americans today

Pine Ridge Reservation, SD

The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation is considered the poorest in the country.
Its poverty level mirrors that of a third world country, rather than a location within the United States.
Unemployment rate of 80-90%
Per capita income of $4,000
8 Times the United States rate of diabetes
5 Times the United States rate of cervical cancer
Twice the rate of heart disease
8 Times the United States rate of Tuberculosis
Alcoholism rate estimated as high as 80%
1 in 4 infants born with fetal alcohol syndrome or effects
Suicide rate more than twice the national rate
Teen suicide rate is 4 times the national rate
Infant mortality is three times the national rate
Life expectancy on Pine Ridge is the lowest in the United States and the 2nd lowest in the Western Hemisphere. Only Haiti has a lower rate.
Facts taken from Re-member.org ridgereservation.aspx>

Friends of the Indian

19th-century organization intent on “helping” the Native Americans become a part of the United States
The goal was citizenship and assimilation
Assimilation defined: attempt to eliminate any trace of original culture in exchange for “civilization”, or the white American definition of civilization—dress, language, customs, etc.
Also known as Americanization.
Employed on all immigrant groups in America in 19th and 20th centuries.
Methods—Indian Boarding Schools, Reservations, and Dawes Act of 1887

Native American Assimilation

The motto and goal were exemplified in a statement by Richard Pratt, “Kill the Indian, save the man.”
Little regard for customs and culture of Native Americans
Various images of 19th-century Indians who underwent this process
Note their western-style dress and hair. Do they look Native American? Do they look American? Is this enough to give them white status?

Indian Boarding Schools

Children were sent far away from tribal culture and parents to boarding schools
Punished for speaking native languages or practicing native culture
Forced to take “Christian” names
Trained in skills used in labor—particularly in service
Documentary in Moodle discusses the long-term effects of the practice.
Indian girls being taught to sew: a skill that would gain them working-class status at best.

Dawes Act of 1887

Another assimilation policy proposed by US Senator Henry Dawes
Called for abandonment of reservation communal lifestyle for private ownership of land and farming
Gave Indian households 160-acre plots or “allotments” and citizenship
Problem—no future plan for more acreage; one family got 160 acres for life, no matter how many children in the family
Reduced Indian land from 138 million acres to 48 million; “leftover” land to be sold to white settlers

Indian Policy in Summary

Native Americans are the least talked about minority in American society today
Extreme poverty on reservations
Native Americans will rebel in the 20th century against mistreatment of the 19th century
1934 Indian Reorganization Act by FDR repeals the Dawes Act and allows the resumption of Indian nation governments
1970s American Indian Movement attempts to regain lost territory and violated treaty agreements

Intolerance in the West

Other minority groups experienced similar racial and religious prejudicial treatment
Ironically, immigrant groups discriminated against in the East experienced a transformation to whiteness and white status upon moving West
Groups facing discrimination:
- Chinese
- Mormons
The West was perceived as a land of opportunity but was limited to only a select few

The Chinese in the West

Most discriminated against but needed to fill the demand for labor
History of Chinese Immigration
- US/China trade relationship established late 18th century
- The first Chinese immigrants were in 1820, primarily male and scholars
- Growth of immigration with the Gold Rush in 1849—but barred from owning mines
- Essential for cheap labor in railroads and mining—but resented labor unions for keeping wages low
- No rights as citizens; intermarriage with whites prohibited; racial discriminatory laws quickly set in place
- By 1870, more than 63k in the United States, 77% in CA

Chinese Role in Transcontinental Railroad

Built by the Central Pacific & Union Pacific Railroads
2 lines built from opposite directions to meet in the middle in Promontory Point, UT
The Central Pacific RR hired 12k Chinese workers, 90% of the labor force building the RR
“The race that built the Great Wall” can build the railroad
Completed in 1869; essential connection of east coast and west coast trade
Chinese workers leveling the road to build track

Chinese Exclusion Act

Congress passed in 1882, after pressure from popular movement among workers in the West.
Would ban any new immigration from China
The first immigration ban of a specific group—established a precedent for future bans of “undesirable” aliens
Eventually Chinese population decreases dramatically to be replaced by Japanese laborers.
Any non-white could not become a citizen, but their children, upon being born in the US could gain citizenship.
Most of the existing Chinese immigrants were male and could not increase the population naturally through reproduction.

Chinese Exclusion Act in Picture

This cartoon portrays a Chinese immigrant sitting outside the Gate of Liberty, and he is surrounded by bundles marked industry, order, sobriety, and peace, presumably his luggage.
On the left is a sign labeling all the negative groups that can get in before the Chinese, and the caption below says “The only one barred out.”

Chinese Exclusion Act in Picture

This image was created by an early labor union.
It portrays a racist image of a Chinese man being booted out of California back to China.

“The Martyrdom of St. Crispin”

Anti-Chinese political cartoon by Thomas Nast for Harper’s Weekly
St. Crispin was the patron saint of shoemakers and leather workers, in this image, presumably a symbol for working men.

“Every Dog (No Distinction of Color) has it’s Day”

Political Cartoon by Thomas Nast for Harper’s Weekly
Caption at the bottom of the picture: “Red Gentleman to Yellow Gentleman, ‘Pale Face ‘fraid you crowd him out, as he did me’.”
In the background, a black man leans against a wall with “My day is coming” scribbled on the wall behind him.

Mormons in the West

Ironic story of persecution
Religious sect founded by Joseph Smith in the 1830s
Settled various parts of the country including MO and IL until Smith was killed for religious beliefs in 1844
Moved to Mexico to escape persecution in the US—ironically 4 years later, the Utah territory becomes part of the United States
Faced persecution by new white American settlers moving into the West

Too Different to Fit In

Distrusted by white settlers
Practice of Polygamy—1890: due to pressure from the US, end as a church doctrine
Actually forward-thinking and successful
Greater success in the West as a community
Perceived as threatening to the US govt.—feared an attempted coup
1857: US Army dispatched to Salt Lake City to deal with Mormons—Utah War

The Utah War 1857

War with no battles, peacefully negotiated
Also called the Utah Expedition, Mormon War, or Buchanan's Blunder
In response to Mormon control over Utah Territory—US govt. threatened by the idea of sect in control over the whole territory
Pres. James Buchanan sent in troops
Mormons armed and prepared for battle
Casualties of non-Mormons in Mountain Meadows Massacre, but no official battles
Resolved by Young stepping down from governor in exchange for a non-Mormon governor

He’s got multiple wives!

Political cartoon memorializing Brigham Young after his death in 1877.
Shows one bed for all his wives.
“The Empty Pillow: and the place which knew him once shall know him no more.”

Imperialism at Its Worst

The story of the West is one of conquest and discrimination—Mexicans, Native Americans, and Mormons.
The same attitudes pushing Manifest Destiny—racial superiority, the idea of American progress, spreading civilization—defined a global story of conquest and domination by the rest of western civilization.
The United States considered the frontier in the West closed in 1890—would move on to new frontiers in Asia and Latin America.
New conquest would be the same as the conquest of the West—American imperialism and Manifest Destiny in the rest of the World.