Human Development and Cognitive-Social-Emotional Theories
Developmental Psychology: An Overview
Defined as the subfield of psychology that studies physical and mental changes from birth until death (old age).
Focuses on how individuals grow and change across the lifespan, encompassing cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
Cognition deals with thoughts and thinking processes.
Schemes: Mental frameworks that help interpret information.
Assimilation: Mental process modifying new information to fit existing schemes.
Example (Child): A child breastfed or bottle-fed sucking a nipple/bottle may apply this scheme to sucking a toy or thumb for gratification.
Example (Dog/Giraffe): A child knows what a dog is; upon seeing a giraffe for the first time, they may call it a "dog" because it has four legs, focusing on similarities but not understanding differences.
Represents a beginning level of thought, recognizing similarities.
Accommodation: Mental process restructuring existing schemes to better understand new information; thinking evolves.
Example (Flying): A child distinguishes that a butterfly and a bird can both fly but are not the same.
Example (Dogs): A child recognizes that a Rottweiler and a Chihuahua are both dogs but have different sizes and temperaments.
Child is able to recognize both similarities and differences among concepts.
Piaget's Cognitive Stages of Development:
1. Sensorimotor Stage ( to about years)
Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli.
Learning occurs through crawling, exploring the environment (e.g., putting things in mouth).
Object Permanence: Develops after months.
The understanding that an object still exists even when it's out of sight.
Example: Before months, if a parent hides a toy, the child may think it's gone. After months, the child will look for it (e.g., reaching behind the parent's back).
Related to playing "peek-a-boo."
2. Preoperational Stage ( to )
Marked by well-developed mental representation and basic use of language.
Egocentrism: Focus solely on themselves.
Examples: A child closing their eyes and thinking they disappear; putting on shades and believing they are invisible; asking if they have siblings ("Yes"), but if asked if their brother/sister has siblings ("I don't know").
Animistic Thinking: Belief that inanimate objects have feelings.
Examples: Kicking a table after running into it and saying "Bad table"; treating stuffed animals as if they have feelings or can talk.
Basic Language Use: Simplistic (e.g., "laster day" for "yesterday").
Lack of Conservation: Inability to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.
Example (Sandwich): A child might think a sandwich cut in half is more than a whole sandwich.
Example (Liquid): A child might think a tall, slender glass of liquid contains more than a short, round glass, even if quantities are equal.
3. Concrete Operational Stage ( to )
Child understands conservation (e.g., the equivalency of sizes and proportions).
Capable of basic mental operations and calculations in their head (e.g., simple arithmetic).
Thinking starts to advance beyond simplistic reasoning.
4. Formal Operational Stage ( into adolescence and beyond)
Logic and reasoning appear; abstract thinking develops.
Abstract Thinking: Deeper level of thought beyond concrete observations.
Example (Statue of Liberty Non-Abstract): "Woman holding a torch, located in New York City."
Example (Statue of Liberty Abstract): "Woman holding a torch, representing equality, opportunities, and freedom for immigrants."
Thinking evolves and becomes much deeper.
Social and Emotional Development
Temperament: An individual's characteristic manner of behavior or reaction; often seen as the "window of our personality" in early childhood/toddlerhood.
Some children are easygoing and pleasant; others are moody, irritable, and difficult.
Example: A cousin with a moody, irritable temperament in childhood carried these traits into adulthood, affecting social skills and job maintenance despite being college-educated.
Temperament can persist into adulthood and influence other aspects of personality.
Socialization: Lifelong process of shaping an individual's behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, and attitudes to conform to societal norms.
Involves developing healthy interaction, social, and communication skills within an environment.
Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind's Research):
1. Authoritarian Parents:
All discipline, no warmth, no love; instill fear.
Described as "military-style" parenting with no compassion.
Outcomes: All discipline, no warmth, no love; instill fear.
Described as "military-style" parenting with no compassion.
2. Authoritative Parents:
Balance of discipline with warmth and love; a "give and take" approach.
Outcomes: Research suggests this is the most effective parenting style; fosters respect and love.
3. Permissive Parents:
Hands-off approach; spoil the child, letting them do what they want.
The child often seems to be the "parent."
Outcomes: Children may grow up expecting the world to cater to them, struggle with failure or setbacks, and have difficulty overcoming obstacles as the world doesn't always provide everything.
4. Uninvolved Parents:
Reasons: May be working long hours/multiple jobs (absence) or lack commitment/seriousness about parenting.
Outcomes: Children may engage in risk-taking behaviors (drugs, alcohol, early pregnancy) due to lack of monitoring, or older siblings may be forced into parenting roles prematurely, creating problems for all involved.
Historical Viewpoint of Parenting (Emphasized Traits):
1920s (): Loyalty to the church; religion was heavily emphasized.
1970s (): Independence; parents instilled critical thinking and not being dependent on government/news due to questioning of elected officials, unnecessary wars, and misuse of finances.
1980s (): Frankness and honesty.
Late 1990s: Willingness to work hard.
/ Survey: Economy and money matters (post-housing market crash); academic achievement (firm foundation, resources).
Present Day (Current):
Mental health: Heavily emphasized, with current generations being more open to discussion and treatment compared to previous generations who sacrificed well-being for work.
Financial stability: Still important, relating to economic ups and downs (e.g., pandemic's impact, need for "rainy day" savings).
Job satisfaction: Being happy and fulfilled in one's career; contrasts with previous generations enduring miserable but high-paying jobs.
Recommendation: Find a passion/joy; if good at it, money will follow.
Historical Viewpoint of Parenting (Least Important Traits Now):
Parents not married: Less emphasis than in the past on specific marital status.
Going to college: Some negativity due to misinformation.
Cons: Not all individuals are suited for college (trade/technical skills can be more beneficial, e.g., AC repair in Florida); high student loans for majors that don't lead to high-paying jobs.
Pros: College-educated individuals are more likely to be financially stable and provide for families; higher education often leads to higher career advancement (e.g., less than unemployment for PhDs in psychology/medical doctors).
Gender Differences: More women attend college today than men, giving men who pursue higher education an advantage.
Early Factors in Social-Emotional Development:
Daycare, preschool, school influences (clubs, organizations, youth sports) are very important.
Leisure Influences (Play): Crucial for developing social, emotional, and communication skills.
Preventing children from playing with others can lead to them becoming socially awkward and lacking vital socialization skills.
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Focuses on the principal challenge (name of the stage) rather than strict age ranges, acknowledging limitations of age rigidity.
1. Trust versus Mistrust ( to years)
Trust: Develops when caretakers (typically mothers at this age) provide consistent nurture (feeding, holding, changing diapers).
Mistrust: Arises from inconsistent care.
Example (Trust): A child holding onto a parent when approached by a distant relative, showing a healthy sense of trust in their primary caregiver and not readily going with strangers.
2. Autonomy versus Self-Doubt ( to years)
Centered on toilet training and issues of control.
Autonomy: Child has freedom to explore and independently manage toilet training (within a routine).
Self-Doubt: Results from overly controlling, demanding, or hands-on parenting in this area.
3. Initiative versus Guilt ( to years)
Initiative: Child takes initiative to do age-appropriate things (e.g., excelling in math, science, physical activity, or even surpassing peers).
Leads to confidence.
Guilt: Arises when a child is not able to compete with peers at the same level or falls below expectations.
Guilt: Arises when a child is not able to compete with peers at the same level or falls below expectations.
4. Industry versus Inferiority ( years to puberty)
Industry: Child is able to compete with peers at the same level, developing confidence in their abilities.
Inferiority: Occurs when a child struggles to compete, falling below expectations in academic or social settings, potentially leading to teasing from peers.
5. Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence, extending into young adulthood)
Identity: Formation of a clear sense of self, career path, and place in society (e.g., choosing a college major, military service, trade).
Role Confusion: Lack of understanding about who one is, where one is going, or how one fits into society.
Example: College students changing majors multiple times; young adults unsure of their career path.
6. Intimacy versus Isolation (Young Adulthood)
Intimacy: Desiring to settle down, form deep relationships, and start a family after establishing a career.
Isolation: Choosing self-isolation (focus on career, not ready for commitment), inability to find a partner, or struggling to balance career and personal life.
7. Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Generativity: Maximizing one's talents in a field, mentoring younger individuals, volunteering, or active involvement with grandchildren.
Stagnation: "Midlife crisis"; unhappiness with aging, job, or career; seeking change (e.g., returning to school).
8. Ego Integrity versus Despair (Older Adulthood)
Ego Integrity: Looking back on life with pride and a sense of accomplishment (e.g., a grandparent feeling proud of their family).
Despair: Unhappiness with life choices, realizing little time remains for change, social isolation due to family absence, death of spouse/friends, or facing one's own mortality.
Examples: Frustration/anger from declining abilities (hearing, vision, memory), dependence on children.
Adolescence: A Closer Look
Developmental period beginning at puberty (typically around years) and ending at adulthood.
Rites of Passage: Social rituals marking transitions between childhood and adulthood.
Examples: Sweet (or in other cultures), obtaining a driver's license, reaching legal drinking age.
Physical Maturation (Puberty): The onset of sexual maturity.
Girls: Menstruation signals puberty.
Boys and Girls: Go through hormonal and physical changes, leading to increased awareness of physical attractiveness.
Growth Spurt: Girls, on average, have a -year growth spurt advantage over boys; boys catch up or surpass girls in height around middle school.
Cognitive and Hormonal Interactions: Rising hormones and physical changes impact cognitive processing and behaviors.
Sexual Issues in Adolescence:
Masturbation: Often misunderstood; when done privately, it is safe and healthy.
Misconceptions: Negative views can lead to acting out sexual urges inappropriately (e.g., sexual aggression in a correctional facility setting, where masturbation could have safely relieved aggression).
Does not lead to unwanted pregnancies or STDs.
Same-sex orientation/Dating: Mate selection and dating interests emerge.
Risky Sex and Experimentation: Newfound independence in college (away from parental monitoring) can lead to engagement in risky behaviors (drugs, excessive drinking, unprotected sex).
Students need to balance fun with responsibilities and safety while in college.
Older Adulthood: Developmental Problems
Physical Decline: Decline in vision, hearing loss.
Cognitive Decline: Thinking, learning, and problem-solving become more difficult.
Memory impairment, potentially leading to Alzheimer's and dementia.
Sexual Function: Misperception that older adults don't have sex.
Research in assisted living facilities shows instances of STDs, indicating continued sexual activity.
Decline in sexual function varies; some experience it, others maintain activity due to scientific advancements.
Social Interaction and Emotions:
Limited interaction due to family absence, death of spouse/friends.
Frustration and anger result from losing abilities (hearing, memory) and becoming dependent on children.
These issues directly relate to Erikson's stage of Ego Integrity versus Despair, particularly the feeling of despair.
Importance of maintaining social interaction within their age group for those who remain relatively healthy.
Aging is highly variable (e.g., a -year-old still driving vs. a -year-old with dementia).
Video Review Summary (Reinforces Piaget's Concepts)
Emphasizes that cognitive development is a continuous process influenced by genetics and environment.
Defines maturation as a sequence of behavioral and appearance changes (e.g., sitting before standing).
Reaffirms Piaget's contributions: proposing cognitive stages, schemas (mental frameworks for interpreting information), and the striving for cognitive equilibrium.
Reviews assimilation (interpreting new experiences with existing schemas, e.g., calling a deer a "horsey") and accommodation (adjusting schemas for new experiences, e.g., differentiating deer from horses).
Highlights key concepts in Piaget's stages:
Preoperational Stage: Mentally representing objects with words/images, pretend play, animism, egocentrism.
Lack of Conservation and Reversibility due to centration (fixating on one aspect of a problem).
Later in this stage: Theory of mind (understanding others' feelings/thoughts, predicting behavior, showing empathy).
Concrete Operational Stage: Logical thinking about concrete events, decentration (seeing beyond one aspect), solving conservation/reversibility problems.
Formal Operational Stage: Abstract thinking, problem-solving, hypothetical questions.
Critiques of Piaget: Oversimplification, rigid age classifications (some abilities observed earlier than he proposed, e.g., object permanence in -month-olds), and development being more continuous.
Mentions that Vygotsky (another contemporary) focuses on language development, which was not the focus of this lecture.
Course Schedule Updates
Human development complete.
Review for the exam will be held early on Tuesday ().
No class on Thursday ().
Study Habits Assignment due: Sunday, October 5. Late assignments will not be accepted (due to class cancellation).
Midterm Week: No regular class meetings.
Exam date: October 9. Will be taken remotely, adhering to first exam protocol.
Students are not expected to attend class during midterm week unless specified by professors.
Next class after the midterm will be on October .
The exam will only be open on October (Thursday).
Developmental Psychology: An Overview- Defined as the subfield of psychology that studies physical and mental changes from birth until death (old age).
Focuses on how individuals grow and change across the lifespan, encompassing cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)- Cognition deals with thoughts and thinking processes.
Schemes: Mental frameworks that help interpret information.
Assimilation: Mental process modifying new information to fit existing schemes.
Example (Child): A child breastfed or bottle-fed sucking a nipple/bottle may apply this scheme to sucking a toy or thumb for gratification.
Example (Dog/Giraffe): A child knows what a dog is; upon seeing a giraffe for the first time, they may call it a "dog" because it has four legs, focusing on similarities but not understanding differences.
Represents a beginning level of thought, recognizing similarities.
Accommodation: Mental process restructuring existing schemes to better understand new information; thinking evolves.
Example (Flying): A child distinguishes that a butterfly and a bird can both fly but are not the same.
Example (Dogs): A child recognizes that a Rottweiler and a Chihuahua are both dogs but have different sizes and temperaments.
Child is able to recognize both similarities and differences among concepts.
Piaget's Cognitive Stages of Development:
1. Sensorimotor Stage ( to about years)- Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli.
Learning occurs through crawling, exploring the environment (e.g., putting things in mouth).
Object Permanence: Develops after months.
The understanding that an object still exists even when it's out of sight.
Example: Before months, if a parent hides a toy, the child may think it's gone. After months, the child will look for it (e.g., reaching behind the parent's back).
Related to playing "peek-a-boo."
2. Preoperational Stage ( to )- Marked by well-developed mental representation and basic use of language.
Egocentrism: Focus solely on themselves.
Examples: A child closing their eyes and thinking they disappear; putting on shades and believing they are invisible; asking if they have siblings ("Yes"), but if asked if their brother/sister has siblings ("I don't know").
Animistic Thinking: Belief that inanimate objects have feelings.
Examples: Kicking a table after running into it and saying "Bad table"; treating stuffed animals as if they have feelings or can talk.
Basic Language Use: Simplistic (e.g., "laster day" for "yesterday").
Lack of Conservation: Inability to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.
Example (Sandwich): A child might think a sandwich cut in half is more than a whole sandwich.
Example (Liquid): A child might think a tall, slender glass of liquid contains more than a short, round glass, even if quantities are equal.
3. Concrete Operational Stage ( to )- Child understands conservation (e.g., the equivalency of sizes and proportions).
Capable of basic mental operations and calculations in their head (e.g., simple arithmetic).
Thinking starts to advance beyond simplistic reasoning.
4. Formal Operational Stage ( into adolescence and beyond)- Logic and reasoning appear; abstract thinking develops.
Abstract Thinking: Deeper level of thought beyond concrete observations.
Example (Statue of Liberty Non-Abstract): "Woman holding a torch, located in New York City."
Example (Statue of Liberty Abstract): "Woman holding a torch, representing equality, opportunities, and freedom for immigrants."
Thinking evolves and becomes much deeper.
Social and Emotional Development- Temperament: An individual's characteristic manner of behavior or reaction; often seen as the "window of our personality" in early childhood/toddlerhood.
Some children are easygoing and pleasant; others are moody, irritable, and difficult.
Example: A cousin with a moody, irritable temperament in childhood carried these traits into adulthood, affecting social skills and job maintenance despite being college-educated.
Temperament can persist into adulthood and influence other aspects of personality.
Socialization: Lifelong process of shaping an individual's behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, and attitudes to conform to societal norms.
Involves developing healthy interaction, social, and communication skills within an environment.
Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind's Research):
1. Authoritarian Parents:- All discipline, no warmth, no love; instill fear.
Described as "military-style" parenting with no compassion.
Outcomes: Children may rebel, have anger issues, act out, or avoid returning home as adults due to lack of bond/connection with parents. Emphasizes fear over respect and love.
2. Authoritative Parents:- Balance of discipline with warmth and love; a "give and take" approach.
Outcomes: Research suggests this is the most effective parenting style; fosters respect and love.
3. Permissive Parents:- Hands-off approach; spoil the child, letting them do what they want.
The child often seems to be the "parent."
Outcomes: Children may grow up expecting the world to cater to them, struggle with failure or setbacks, and have difficulty overcoming obstacles as the world doesn't always provide everything.
4. Uninvolved Parents:- Reasons: May be working long hours/multiple jobs (absence) or lack commitment/seriousness about parenting.
Outcomes: Children may engage in risk-taking behaviors (drugs, alcohol, early pregnancy) due to lack of monitoring, or older siblings may be forced into parenting roles prematurely, creating problems for all involved.
Historical Viewpoint of Parenting (Emphasized Traits):
1920s (): Loyalty to the church; religion was heavily emphasized.
1970s (): Independence; parents instilled critical thinking and not being dependent on government/news due to questioning of elected officials, unnecessary wars, and misuse of finances.
1980s (): Frankness and honesty.
Late 1990s: Willingness to work hard.
/ Survey: Economy and money matters (post-housing market crash); academic achievement (firm foundation, resources).
Present Day (Current):- Mental health: Heavily emphasized, with current generations being more open to discussion and treatment compared to previous generations who sacrificed well-being for work.
Financial stability: Still important, relating to economic ups and downs (e.g., pandemic's impact, need for "rainy day" savings).
Job satisfaction: Being happy and fulfilled in one's career; contrasts with previous generations enduring miserable but high-paying jobs.
Recommendation: Find a passion/joy; if good at it, money will follow.
Historical Viewpoint of Parenting (Least Important Traits Now):
Parents not married: Less emphasis than in the past on specific marital status.
Going to college: Some negativity due to misinformation.- Cons: Not all individuals are suited for college (trade/technical skills can be more beneficial, e.g., AC repair in Florida); high student loans for majors that don't lead to high-paying jobs.
Pros: College-educated individuals are more likely to be financially stable and provide for families; higher education often leads to higher career advancement (e.g., less than unemployment for PhDs in psychology/medical doctors).
Gender Differences: More women attend college today than men, giving men who pursue higher education an advantage.
Early Factors in Social-Emotional Development:
Daycare, preschool, school influences (clubs, organizations, youth sports) are very important.
Leisure Influences (Play): Crucial for developing social, emotional, and communication skills.- Preventing children from playing with others can lead to them becoming socially awkward and lacking vital socialization skills.
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages- Focuses on the principal challenge (name of the stage) rather than strict age ranges, acknowledging limitations of age rigidity.
1. Trust versus Mistrust ( to years)
Trust: Develops when caretakers (typically mothers at this age) provide consistent nurture (feeding, holding, changing diapers).
Mistrust: Arises from inconsistent care.
Example (Trust): A child holding onto a parent when approached by a distant relative, showing a healthy sense of trust in their primary caregiver and not readily going with strangers.
2. Autonomy versus Self-Doubt ( to years)
Centered on toilet training and issues of control.
Autonomy: Child has freedom to explore and independently manage toilet training (within a routine).
Self-Doubt: Results from overly controlling, demanding, or hands-on parenting in this area.
3. Initiative versus Guilt ( to years)
Initiative: Child takes initiative to do age-appropriate things (e.g., excelling in math, science, physical activity, or even surpassing peers).- Leads to confidence.
Guilt: Arises when a child is not able to compete with peers at the same level or falls below expectations.- Teasing or bullying by peers can contribute to feelings of inferiority during this stage.
4. Industry versus Inferiority ( years to puberty)
Industry: Child is able to compete with peers at the same level, developing confidence in their abilities.
Inferiority: Occurs when a child struggles to compete, falling below expectations in academic or social settings, potentially leading to teasing from peers.
5. Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence, extending into young adulthood)
Identity: Formation of a clear sense of self, career path, and place in society (e.g., choosing a college major, military service, trade).
Role Confusion: Lack of understanding about who one is, where one is going, or how one fits into society.- Example: College students changing majors multiple times; young adults unsure of their career path.
6. Intimacy versus Isolation (Young Adulthood)
Intimacy: Desiring to settle down, form deep relationships, and start a family after establishing a career.
Isolation: Choosing self-isolation (focus on career, not ready for commitment), inability to find a partner, or struggling to balance career and personal life.
7. Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Generativity: Maximizing one's talents in a field, mentoring younger individuals, volunteering, or active involvement with grandchildren.
Stagnation: "Midlife crisis"; unhappiness with aging, job, or career; seeking change (e.g., returning to school).
8. Ego Integrity versus Despair (Older Adulthood)
Ego Integrity: Looking back on life with pride and a sense of accomplishment (e.g., a grandparent feeling proud of their family).
Despair: Unhappiness with life choices, realizing little time remains for change, social isolation due to family absence, death of spouse/friends, or facing one's own mortality.- Examples: Frustration/anger from declining abilities (hearing, vision, memory), dependence on children.
Adolescence: A Closer Look- Developmental period beginning at puberty (typically around years) and ending at adulthood.
Rites of Passage: Social rituals marking transitions between childhood and adulthood.
Examples: Sweet (or in other cultures), obtaining a driver's license, reaching legal drinking age.
Physical Maturation (Puberty): The onset of sexual maturity.
Girls: Menstruation signals puberty.
Boys and Girls: Go through hormonal and physical changes, leading to increased awareness of physical attractiveness.
Growth Spurt: Girls, on average, have a -year growth spurt advantage over boys; boys catch up or surpass girls in height around middle school.
Cognitive and Hormonal Interactions: Rising hormones and physical changes impact cognitive processing and behaviors.
Sexual Issues in Adolescence:
Masturbation: Often misunderstood; when done privately, it is safe and healthy.- Misconceptions: Negative views can lead to acting out sexual urges inappropriately (e.g., sexual aggression in a correctional facility setting, where masturbation could have safely relieved aggression).
Does not lead to unwanted pregnancies or STDs.
Same-sex orientation/Dating: Mate selection and dating interests emerge.
Risky Sex and Experimentation: Newfound independence in college (away from parental monitoring) can lead to engagement in risky behaviors (drugs, excessive drinking, unprotected sex).- Students need to balance fun with responsibilities and safety while in college.
Older Adulthood: Developmental Problems- Physical Decline: Decline in vision, hearing loss.
Cognitive Decline: Thinking, learning, and problem-solving become more difficult.
Memory impairment, potentially leading to Alzheimer's and dementia.
Sexual Function: Misperception that older adults don't have sex.
Research in assisted living facilities shows instances of STDs, indicating continued sexual activity.
Decline in sexual function varies; some experience it, others maintain activity due to scientific advancements.
Social Interaction and Emotions:
Limited interaction due to family absence, death of spouse/friends.
Frustration and anger result from losing abilities (hearing, memory) and becoming dependent on children.
These issues directly relate to Erikson's stage of Ego Integrity versus Despair, particularly the feeling of despair.
Importance of maintaining social interaction within their age group for those who remain relatively healthy.
Aging is highly variable (e.g., a -year-old still driving vs. a -year-old with dementia).
Video Review Summary (Reinforces Piaget's Concepts)- Emphasizes that cognitive development is a continuous process influenced by genetics and environment.
Defines maturation as a sequence of behavioral and appearance changes (e.g., sitting before standing).
Reaffirms Piaget's contributions: proposing cognitive stages, schemas (mental frameworks for interpreting information), and the striving for cognitive equilibrium.
Reviews assimilation (interpreting new experiences with existing schemas, e.g., calling a deer a "horsey") and accommodation (adjusting schemas for new experiences, e.g., differentiating deer from horses).
Highlights key concepts in Piaget's stages:
Preoperational Stage: Mentally representing objects with words/images, pretend play, animism, egocentrism.
Lack of Conservation and Reversibility due to centration (fixating on one aspect of a problem).
Later in this stage: Theory of mind (understanding others' feelings/thoughts, predicting behavior, showing empathy).
Concrete Operational Stage: Logical thinking about concrete events, decentration (seeing beyond one aspect), solving conservation/reversibility problems.
Formal Operational Stage: Abstract thinking, problem-solving, hypothetical questions.
Critiques of Piaget: Oversimplification, rigid age classifications (some abilities observed earlier than he proposed, e.g., object permanence in -month-olds), and development being more continuous.
Mentions that Vygotsky (another contemporary) focuses on language development, which was not the focus of this lecture.
Course Schedule Updates- Human development complete.
Review for the exam will be held early on Tuesday ().
No class on Thursday ().
Study Habits Assignment due: Sunday, October 5. Late assignments will not be accepted (due to class cancellation).
Midterm Week: No regular class meetings.
Exam date: October 9. Will be taken remotely, adhering to first exam protocol.
Students are not expected to attend class during midterm week unless specified by professors.
Next class after the midterm will be on October .
The exam will only be open on October (Thursday).